Fam. Ammonaceae
More than 90 species of small tree and shrubs are known in the Annonaceae family. They occur mostly in Tropical america, but some are found also in Asia and Africa. Soursop and custard apple are widely distributed in Central America and the Carribbean, while the sweetsop is commenest in India and Southeast Asia. They do not require special conditions of soil or water, but thrive best in places where ther is a clear division between the rainy and the dry season, and generally prefer dry sites in wich to grow.
The effective ingredients are in the unripe fruit, and in the seeds , leaves and roots. The oil content of the seeds amounts to 42-45 %.
Contat – and stomac poison
Insecticidal , larvicidal , repellent , antifeedant.
Aphids - general
Brown rice plant hopper - Nilaparvata lugens
Diamondback Moth - Plutella xylostella
Chrysanthemum aphid - Macrosiphoniella sanborni
Grasshopper - general
Green bugs - general
Green rice leaf hopper - nephotettix virescens
Potato aphid - Macrosiphum euphorbiae
Red pumpkin beetle - Aulacophora foveicollis
Whitebacked rice plante hopper – sogatella furcifera
Annona has not proved effective against the
Saw-toothed grain beetle Oryzephilus surinamensis
Trouver une photo de Sweetop (annona squamosa)
The toxic effect of Annona sets in slowly , 2-3 days should be allowed.
Laboratory trials have shown that by extracting annona seeds with ether or petroleum ether, the toxicity can be increased 50-100 times. But since laboratory methods are impractical in the field, other locally availabe and cheap solvents could be tried, like petrol or kerosene.
When pulverising the seeds of A. squamosa , care should be taken to ensure that the powder does not come in contact with the eyes as this causes great pain.
The custard apple is the most effective of annonas against insects.
Relatively little information exists on the preparation and use of annona. Wide-ranging laboratory trials have demonstrated its higly effective insecticidal values. Experimentally-inclined farmers could contribute much needed information about widely distributed plant.
A 10 % concentration of seed oil produces a 90 % death rate of the bug Urnetius echinus within 72 hours. A 5-7 % concentration is still effective, but low concentration of 1 – 3 % produce no results.
Pulverised seeds are used in China and the Philippines against Lecanium in West Africa. The writers gives no details regarding quantities.
An extract of the leaves with ether proves higly successful against the red pumpkinn beetle (Aulacophora foveicollis). A diluted solution achieves a 91 % rate .
Fam. Solanaceae
Chillies are widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics and originate in South America where they were early cultivated. They were introduced to the rest of the world by the Spaniards and the Portuguese. The ripe fruit has insecticidal properties and the effective substances are highest in the skin and in the seeds ;
Stomac poison
Insecticidal repellent , antifeedant , fumigant , viroid.
Trouver une photo de chili (Capsicum frutescens)
Ants - general
Aphids - general
Caterpillars - general
Colorado beetle - Leptinotarsa decemlineata
Imported cabbage worm - Pieris rapae
Rice Weevil - Sitophilus
Warehouse pests - general
Cucumber mosaic virus - Pieris rapae
Cucumber ringspot virus - Pieris rapae
Tobacco etch - Pieris rapae
Tobacco mosaic virus - Pieris rapae
Tobacco mosaic virus - Pieris rapae
From kenya good results are reported o n the control of aphids in home vegetable gardens.
Hot chillippers are finely ground, stirred in water and allowed to stand overnight. After filtering through a cloth the solution is sprayed onto the plants , or if no syringe is available sprinkled with a whisk of twigs or grass.
A similar method is reported from Papua New Guinea where chilipepper is used as repellent
Finally ground chillies are covered with water and soap either as flakes or liquid. The mixture is well stirred and sprayed over affected plants.
Chilli spray preparation are also well knonw in the philippines :
100 g chillies, water, soap solution :
The chillies are finely pulvrised in a mortar, vigourosly shaken with 1 litre of water and filtered through a cloth. One part of ths concentrate is diluted with five parts of soapy water before spraying. It is effective against aphids and many other vegetable pests.
Too strong a concentrate causes burning of the leaves, so the right strengh should be found by testing.
Care should be taken because the solution irritates the skin.
MCKEEN reports that the young leaves of cowpea were rubbed with virus-infected sap expressed from chilli leaves the colour change was markedly reduced. Mostly there was even none. (The change of colour is regarded as an indicator of a virus infrection). When the experiment was repeated wuth the sap from virus-infected tobacco leaves the cowpea leaves underwent a strong colour change, but when the tobacco sap was mixed with 5 % of chilli sap the number of leaves which changed colour was reduces by 95 %.
The efectivness of the virus inhibition depends on the host plant. It is probable that members of the same plant familly do not work infallibly on one another virus inhibitors. Further tests showed that the virus-inhibiting ingredients is present in all parts og the chilli plant. However, extracts from the leaves and flowers showed the highest concentration and the roots are lowest.
In practise, it is important that chilli sap should be applied as a preventive measure before the virus infection affects the plant. Once the virus has taken hold it cannot be effectively controlled.
This is information is all derived from scientific sources. The writer has no results taken from practice in the field.
Family Leguminoseae
Derris is a small shrub originating in the tropical rainforests of the Malay Archipeligo. It grows in lowland areas and does not thrive at higher altitudes. It is the roots which contain the active substances, mainly rotenone. Grown in the shade D. malaccensis requires a period of 1 1/2 – 2 years for it to produce a worthwhile content of rotenone , but when grown i nfull sunlight needs only nine months for the roots to develop sufficiently.
Deris elliptica developped after 26 months the maximum amount of rotenone. Derris can propagated vegetavitely from 50 cm long cuttings when rooting follows after six weeks. The crop is harvested by exposing the shallow roots and cutting off those with a diameter of 2- 6 cm since these have the highest rotenone content. Derris thrives on many soils but particularly on loams and clays
Contact – and stomac poison
Insecticidal and repellent.
Trouver une photo de Derris ( D. elliptica )
Adzuki bean beetle - Callosobruchus chinensis
Army worms - Spodoptera litura
American bollworm - Heliothis armigera
Diamondback moth - Plutella xylostella
Fruit flies - Dacus spp.
Mediterranean fruit fly - Ceratitis capitata
Melon aphid - Aphis gossypii
- Crocidolomia binotalis
- Margaronia indica
- Crysodeixes chalsites
Derris is also effective against the fungus Pyricularia oryzae.
Derry is most effective against larvae in the young stages. Caterpillars, aphids and beetles are very vulnerable, but it is not effective against cockroaches.
Derris is affected by sunlight , oxygen and temperature. After a week in strong sunlight deris dust is no longer effective. In the shade it retains its properties for a fortnight.
Handling derris dust can also cause skin rashes and should therefore be avoided. If derris dust or spray is inhaled over a period it can give rise to a numb feeling in the lips and tongue and throat.
Derris is harmless to bees , but toxic to fish.
Freshly cut roots from 2 – 6 cm diameter are washed and cut into 5 cm lengths. With a stone or pestle they are pounded together with soap and little water. Soap facilitates the solubility of the rotenone. When the roots are completely shredded into fibres the liquid is filtered off through a fine cloth. The resulting solution is diluted off through a fine cloth. The resulting solution is diluted to the apporved strength and used at once.
The following quantities are recommended :
1 part soap : 4 parts roots : 225 parts water
when finely powdered derris dust is obtainable the following proportions should be used for an extract :
100 litres water : 500 g neutral soap : 1 kg derris
A preparation which is highly effective agaisnt apple pahids can be made by stirring 2.5 kg derrisdust into 400 litres of soap solution.
In trials pulverised derris roots containing about 5 % rotenone were dilluted with talc in the proportions of 1 : 5 . 1 : 10 and 1 : 20. These preparations were dusted at the rate of 30 kg/ha over cabbage plants which were infested with the larvae of the imported cabbage worm and Cabbage loopers. Three applications were given over a period of two weeks. The dilution of 1 : 5 produced the least feeding damage.
In another trial the following mixture was dusted over cabbages just as they were beginning to head :
30 % pyrethrum (1.16 % pyrethrin).
20 % derris dust (4% rotenone).
50 % alumina as carrying agent.
Two applications were given at an interval of 7 days. A week later the plants were examined with the following results :
On 50 plants a total of only 4 caterpillars were discovered.
App. 40 numbers of flea beetles were killed and many plants had 50 – 100 dead flea beetles on the outer leaves.
The date rate among aphids was unstatifactorily low ;
Thrips, which inhabit the underside of the outer leaves were not reduced.
Fam. Liliaceae
Garlic is a cosmopolitan plant which grows in temperate zones as well as in the tropics and subtropics. It probably aroginated in Central Asia whence spread to the Mediterranean, around whose shores it still finds its greatest use in the kitchen.
It is much cultivated and easy to grow in field, garden or backyard. For use as an insecticide it should not be grown with mineral fertilizers since it has been established that heavy doses of fertilizers reduce the concetration of effective substances.
Insectidical , repellent , antifeedant, bactericidal , fungicidal , nematocidal and effective against ticks.
Trouver une photo de Allium sativum
Aphids - general
Army worms - Spodoptera litura
Colorado Beetle - Leptinotarsa decemlineata
False coding moth - Cryptophlebia leucotreta
Kharpa beetle - Trogoderma granarium
Mexican bean beetle - Epilachna varivestis
Inported cabbage worm - Pierris rapae
Wire worms - general
Garlic has also been found to be effective against fungus such as mildew and beanrust.
Some gardeners in Germany have long made garlic solution in water to use against pest. According tothem it should be applied immediatly after the preparation so that the volatile oil do not escape into the atmosphere before to exerttheir effects on plants (ILLMANN, pers.comm.)
Laboratory trials indicated that an extract of garlic reduced feeding by older larvae less than by younger larvae.
100 g garlic cloves, 0.5 litres of water , 10 gm soap , 2 tea spoons mineral oil.
Steep the finely grated garlic for 24 hours inthe mineral oil. Dissolve the soap in the water , mix the infusion of garlic and mineral oil, stir well together and filter through a fine cloth. Before use this solution is dluted with 20 parts of water. It is effective against the most commom pests , but different strengths should be experimented with regarding specific insects.
Steep 3 finely grounded garlic bulbs for 2 days in liquid parafin and then stir well with a large spoonful of soap flakes and 10 litre of water. This preparation is effective against wide range of insect pest.
The following preaparation is successful against caterpillars in fruit trees :
2 finely grated garlic bulbs and two spoon chillipeppers are stirred into 4 litres of hot water in which a nut sized piece of soap has been dissolved.
Fam. Guttiferaceae
This tree grows to a height of 20 m and originated in the Caribbean and in northern South America. In the meantime it is also spread in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia. It thrives up to 1000 m and there are two harvests a year and each tree yields 300 – 400 fruits.
The insecticidal plant part is above all the ripe seed. Leaves and bark posses only a low insecticidal action.
Contact – and stomach poison
Insecticidal , repellent , nematicidal and effective against ticks.
Aphids - General
Diamondback moth - Plutella xylostella
Cucumber beetle - Diabrotica bivittata
Imported cabbage worm - Pieris rapae
Melon worm - Diaphania hyalinata
Mites - general
Rice weevil - Sitopphilus oryzae
- Ascia monuste
- Cerotoma ruficornis
After 4 days of sun , wind and dew mammey powder was still an effective poison.
In the West Indies the resin of the mammey apple tree is used against flies.
Powder made from mammey apple seeds can be used either as a dusting agant or in a solution as a spray. Besides water soultions, preparations may be made with kerosene which can be used effectively against household vermin.
Mammey powder can be dusted onto cabbages against caterpillars of the diamondback moth , using 8- 9 gm of powder ( it is best used mixed with carrying agent) per plant. The application should be carried out when the dew is on the plant so that the powder adheres well. Trials demonstrated that this treatment killed 80 % of the caterpillars in 4 days.
A spray made from 4 kg of mammey powder dissolved in 400 litres of water ( with added soap as a spreading and adhesive agent reduces in 4 days a 67.9 % control of the caterpillars of the diamondback moth and a 73.6 % control of the larvae of Ascia monuste.
Family Meliaceae
Neem is a fast growing sclerophyllous tree which is present in the Indian subcontinent, but which is now distributed throughout Southeast- Asia, East and Sub-sahelian Africa, fidji and some parts of Central America.
It grows well in semi-arid climat, it will thrive even in places with less than 500 mm of rain. The soil requirements are modest and neem grows equally poor, shallow, sandy or stony ground. The trees give an average of 30 – 40 kg of seeds. The oil contect of the seed is 35 – 45 %. The effective ingredients are present in all parts of the tree but is higly concentrated in the seeds.
Insecticidal , repellent , antifeedant , nematicidal.
Neem is effective against numerous pests. It has been shown that it can control over 100 species of insects, mites and nematodes. Some of them are :
American bollworm - Heliothis armigera
Aphids - general
Brown rice plant hopper - nilaparvata lugens
Diamondback moth - Plutella xylostella
Cabbage worm - Mamestra brassciae
Colorado Beetle - Leptinotarsa decemlineata
Cutworms - Agrotis spp.
Desert locust - Schistocerca gregaria
Fall arm worm - Spodoptera frugiperda
Flea beetle - Podagrica uniforma
Green rice leaf hopper - Nephotettix virescens
Large cabbage worm - pieris brassicae
Leaf miner - Liriomyza spp.
Mediteranean fruitfly - Ceratitis capitata
Mexican bean beetle - Epilachna varivestis
Migratory locust - Locust migratoria
Mites - General
Potato jassid - Empoasca fabae
Rice stalk borers - General
Spotted stalk borers - Chilo partellus
Variegated grasshopper - Zonocerus variegatus
White-backed rice plant hopper - Sogattella furcifera
White fly - Bemisia tabaci
- Epilachna crysomelina
- Hellula undalis
- Papilio demodocus
different views prevail regarding the effectivness od neem against
Cowpea beetle - Callosobruchus maculatus
Khapra beetle - Trogoderma granarium
Lesser grain borer - Rhizopertha dominica
Rice weevil - Sitophilus oryzae
The effective substances of neem loose their potency in sunny conditions being broken down by ultra-violet radiation. It is therefore best to apply neem preparations in the evening.
So far neem preparation seem to have had no, or almost nooe, negative effects on the Hymenoptera family whose members are useful pollinisators and parasites of pest insects and on bees.
There are 4 methods of using neem seed :
Aqueous extracts
Neem oil
Neem kermel powder
Neem press cake
Fallen fruits are collected from underneath the trees. The flesh is removed from the seeds and any remaining shreds washed away. The seed is then carefully dried to avoid fungus forming and stored in airy conditions.
When requirred the seeds are shelled, finely grated and stepped overnight in a cloth suspended in a barrel of water at the rate of 25 – 50 gm / litre. This solution has proved to be very effective against vegetable pests such as cabbage caterpillars, melon beetles and grasshoppers.
KUMAR gives the following method for a water extract of neem :
5 kg of dried pulverised seed are suspended overnight in a cloth in a bucket of water. After about 12 hours the clotth is taken out and squeezed. About 10 mg of soap are separatlely dissolved in a little water and added to the bucket. The whole is well stirred and made up to 100 litre with water. This preparation was used against Corn earworm (Heliothis armigera) infesting peas, at the rate of 500 litre per hectare. The infestation by the caterpillars of H. armigera which had bored into the pods was reduced to 1.1 %. An untreated sample showed an infestation rate of 7.45 %.
According to experience in Togo grasshoppers stopped eating immediately after application of aqueous neem extract. For caterpillars it usually takes 2 – 3 days to die. However, because the solution becomes less effective with time it is recommended that a second application be given in severe cases.
Experience has also shown that neem extract can be used preventely. However, this should not be allowed to develop into a regular practise since it may also affect natural ennemies of the pests.
JACOBSON recommends an aqueaous extract as repellant with 500 gm neem seed dissolved in 400 litres of water which is sufficient for 0.4 hectares. This application will protect the crop for about 2 weeks if it is not washed away by heavy rain.
2 kg whole neem fruit and 15 litres of water.
The fruit is shredded in an electric mixer with a little water,(precaution should be taken not to overload the mixer). Part of the water is added to the pulp and allowed to stand overnight before stewing and making up the full 15 litres. Sprayed weekly this prearation inhibits feeding by the flea beetle (Podagrica uniforma) and inhibits the development of larvae of Epilachna chrysomelina and Papilio demodocus.
If it is kept in the dark this neem prearation will remain effective for 3- 4 days.
To produce neem oil by hand, use the dried kernels. These firstly have to be decorticated.In a mortar they are lightly cracked, so that the outer husks are freed from the inner seed. The husks are then removed by winnowing. The decorticated seeds are returned to the mortar where they are pounded until they form a brown, slightly sticky mass. A little water is added so as to form a workable paste which forms an almost solid ball. This ball is kneaded for several minutes over a bowl until oil collects on the surface, then press it firmly. Oil will come ou in drop. Alternate kneading and squeezing will separate the oil. With this method 100 – 150 ml of oil can be extracted from onr kg of neem kernels. This is about half of the oil content.
If machine are available these can be used for oil extraction. Heating of oil is said to not affect the insecticidal properties.
To protect beans in store from infestation by bruchids, each kg of beans should be mixed with 2 – 3 ml of neem oil. Thus a 50 kg sack of beans need 150 ml of oil at the most. It is important to ensure that the oil is well mixed so that each bean is completely coated. This treatment protects the beans for six months.
To remove the bitter taste of oil from the beans before eating they should be covered with hot water for a few minutes and drained after.
The Indian Research Institut (IARI) in New Dehli has tested the effectivness of the neem seed powder in storage protection against rice weevils, lesser grain borers and khapra beetles. Neem seed powder was mixed with wheat at the rate of 0.5 % , 1 % and 2 .0 % by volume. The results showed that the 1.0 % and 2.0 % admixture protected the seed against rice weevils, lesser grains borers and kharpa beetles for 269, 321 and 379 days respectively. This method should be of interest to village farmers storing grain in smaller quantities.
In another test the IARI examined the effect of neem powder against the kharpa beetleand the lesser grain borer when mixed with wheat at the rate of 0.5 % , 1.0 % , 2.0 % and 4.0 % . This showed that the kharpa beetles were more vulnerable to neem. After 240 days 24 % of the wheat was found to have suffered kharpa damage when treated with 0.5 % of neem, but only 8 % in the case of the 4.0 % admixture. On the other hand , neem powder had no effect on the lesser grain borers, for even with the 4.0 % treatment., 92 % of the wheat suffered insect damage. This result contradicts the foregoing one obtaine by the same research institut.
Other methods of use
Accoring to RADWANSKY neem is effective against nematodes. Barley seed can be stepped for 2 hour in a 1 % water solution of ground neem seed. After sowing a 50 % reduction in infestation by nematodes of the genus Pratylenchus was noted.
Indian farmers in the Pune district plough in 1/2 t/ha of pressed neem cake. This protects eggplants from borers and tomatoes from nematodes and leaf spot disease.
Some farmers spray aqueous solutions of neem press cake onto citrus trees to protect them from miners.
Fungicidal effects
In india trial have carried out with different neem preparations in efforts to control fungi affecting chickpeas, particulary Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizictonia solani , Scerotium rolfsii and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
The following prearations were tested :
Neem oil, fruit pulp , aqueous leaf-and bark extracts.
The seed of the chickpeas were treated before being sowed in fungi-effected earth.
Neem oil protected the seed most effectively against fungus attack in the following order : Rhizoctonia solani > Sclerotium rolfsii > Fusarium oxysporum > Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.
The pulp of the neem completely prevents the development of resting form of R. solani. This was important discovery since it is these which are responsible for the longevity of the fungus. However, in the case of S. clerotiorum development of the resting forms was not impaired because they have such strong bodies.
Little is known about the effectiveness of neem against fungus diesases. The initial observations constitute the ground for further research. Possibly pressed neem cake can be similarly used to control fungus growths in the ground. Other line of investigation may offer themselves.
This tree is closely related to neem. It us a native of the Indian Himalayas, but today is widely distributed throughout the topics and subtopics. As an ornamental tree it is often used for shade in gardens and for avenues (64).
Dried leaves and twigs have been used for centuries to protect cloth, books and leather (13). The seeds possess insecticidal propreties as well.
Contact- and stomac poison.
Insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, growth inhibiting, effective against ticks (52, 145).
In trials water extracts of 1:10 and 1:20 caused 100 % deaths of the pupae of the army worm ( Spodopiera litura). In the larval stage 1:10 caused 68 % deaths and 1:20 a death rate of 44 %. In these trials water proved to be just as effective a solvent as ethyl alcohol (145).
A repellant against grasahoppers can be prepared by steering 150 gm fresh or 50 gm dried leaves in a litre of cold water for 24 hours. Then it is sprayed onto the crops to be protected (28).
Fam. Compositae
Pyrethrum is a daisylike perennial plant of the genus Chrysanthemum belonging to the Compositae family. The white flowersheads possess insecticidal properties.
Pyrethrum originated in the Dalmatian Mountains of Yugoslavia and its cultivation spread throughout the world at the turn of the century. The colonial powers introduced it into East Africa and South America and after the First World War Japan became the principal exporter (14).
The cultivation of pyretthrum, takes place in mountainous regions up to a height of 3000 m, ideally in semi-arid conditions where the winters are cool. Rainfall of 1200 mm with a 2-3 monthh dry season are best. Pyrethrum can withstand frost down to –12°C, but in situations below about 1600 m the flowers do not set sufficiently. The content of the active substances increases with the height and cooler average temperatures (78).
In places with humus-rich loams and heavier rainfall the plant grows more profusely, but the insecticidal content is less plentiful than when it grows in poorer, drier situations. The flowers are picked on dry, hot days when they are fully open, and left for a short time in small heaps to warm throught before being spread to dry 3-4 cm thick on mats in an airy, shady place. The harvest produces between 200 and 1000 kg per hectare (80). Pyrethrum flowers are best stored air-tight and in darkness.
Pure contact poison
Insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant (52).
Through its effect as a nerve poison, it produces erratic movement, excitement and finally paralysis (knock-down effect). The insects can, however, recover from the amounts required to produce the knock-down effect within 24 hours. Larger doses are needed to bring about death (141).
Aphids - general (52)
Coffee bugs - Lygus spp. (78)
Colorado beetle - Leptinotarsa decemlineata (52)
Flea beetles - general (78)
Grasshoppers - general (78)
Imported cabbage worm - Pieris rapae (52)
Large cabbage worm - Pieris brassicae (78)
- Aspodydia spp. (52)
- Empoasca devastans (52)
- Leucinodes orbonalis (52)
- Ophiomyia reticulata (52)
Pyrethrum is effective against numerous caterpillars, beetles, aphids, mites, locusts, thrips, moths etc. ….. (35).
The poisonous effects of Pyrethrum on warm-blooded mammals are so slight that it is usually regarded as harmless to male. However, prolonged contact wih the skin can produce a rash, and inhaling dust or spray can cause headaches and sickness (116).
The toxicity of pyrethrum preparations is considerably increased by the addition of small quantities of rotenone (e.g. derris, tephrosia, lonchocarpus) or nicotine (e.g. tobacco, anabasine) (78).
The effectiveness of pyrethrum is quickly reduced under the influence of strong sunlight (151). The addition of anti-oxidants, e.g. taneic acid (present in annona bark) slows down this process.
Substances known as synergists such as sesame oil or piperonyl butoxile enhance the utilization of the toxic suibstances in pyrethrum either by increasing or prolonging their effects. This means that insects do not recover so quickly after the knockdown effect.
Pyrethrum is used in two ways : as a poder or dust, and as a spray. As a dust it can be used either pure or mixed with a carrier such as talc, lime or diatomaceous earth. When it is use as a spray, pyrethrum is usually dissolved in water, soap solution or kerosene. After kerosene spray has the advantage that the decomposition of the active substance is slowed down (141). Soapy sprays have some effects on the surface action and increa the toxicity of the pyrethrum. The spray should be applied as soon as it is prepared (78).
*Kerosene-extract
500 gm pyrethrum flowers are steeped in 4 litres of kerosene half a day. After straining through a or cloth the so is ready for use . It has been shown kerosene
*500 gm pyrethrum powder, 3-4 litres of paraffin.
The pyrethrum is steeped in paraffin for a day, stirred occassionnally and strained before use. This preparation has been in plantations in Kenya (92).
*20 gm pyrethrum powder, 10 litres of water.
The ingredients are strirred well together and applied immediately. For the best effect this mixture should be applied in evening (126).
*Dufour preparation
1-1,5 kg dried pyrethrum, 3 kg liquid soap and 100 litres a water are being extracted like above mentionned. The addition a soap is supposed to increase the effectivity four-fold (12).
Quassia amara is a small, 4-6 m tall, tropical tree which is distributed in Central America, Brazil and Surinam. A related shrub, Aeschrion excelsa, which grows in the west Indies, also contains insecticidal compounds. In India, farmers use Picrasma excesa, which is either closely related to or identical with A.excelsa (70).
It is above all the wood which contains the insecticidal properties, but the roots, leaves and bark all contain quassinto a small degree (13).
Contact- and stomach poison
Insecticidal, larvicidal, nematicidal,
Quassia also acts systematically.
Aphids general (133)
Diamondback moth Plutellaxylostella (13)
Caterpillars general (155)
Colorado beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (70)
Leaf miners general (35)
Melonworm Diaphania hyalinata
Mites general (155)
Black carpet beetle Attagenus piceus
Silkworm Bombyx mori (70)
Hoplocampa spp. (70)
Phymatocera aterrima
Quassia proved not effects against :
Codling moth Cydia pomonella (70)
Mexican bean beetle Eplacchna varivestis (70)
Peach aphid Myzus persicae (133)
*Beneficial insects like ladybirds and honeybess are not killed by quasia spray preparations (161).
*Because the effecive substances are water-soluble quasia sprays are used against sap feeders. When taken up by the roots, quassia works systemically and is transported into the leaves where it acts as stomach poison (133).
Spray preparations should be used immediately after making up. Since the insecticidal contents vary from place to place as well as methods of preparing the solution, it is advisable to experiment locally to discover optimum quantities as well as preparation procedures (70).
*Because quasia works systemically, plants can be kept insectfree by applying a quasia in water solution to the ground. This is taken up by the roots and distributed throughout the plant (133).
*Quasia soap solution I
30 gm quassia chips, ¼ litre water, 30 gm liquid soap.
The quassia chips are boiled in the water for 30 minutes, filtered and the liquid soap added to the filtrate. This is diluted with 3 parts of water before use (35).
*Quassia soap solution II
500 gm quassia chips, 500 gm soap, 20 litres water.
Simmer all the ingredients together for 2 hours, then filter and add a further 20 litres of water to the filtrate. As a spray this preparation is effective against sap-imbibing insects, particularly aphids and black ants (92).
*Quassia soap solution III
Boil 500 gm quassia chips in 10 litres of water for some time and let it stand for 24 hours, then filter. A separate solution made from 2 kg soap and 5liters of water is prepared, added to the quassia decoction and made up to 100 litres with water. Then it is ready to spray.
*Quassia-Tobacco solution
Simmer 50gm quassia chips in a litre of water for an hour remove from the flame, add half a cigareette (or a number of cigarette butts) and allow to stand for a day. Strim and add 100 gm of soft soap and 5 litres of water. This solution is highly effective against mealy bugs (144).
Quassia sprays should not be used on plants with edble fruit or leaves. The solution is extremely bitter and is stable and long lasting (92).
Fam. Flacourtiaceae
The ryanias are found in the northern parts of South America and the Amazon basin. The most important is Ryania speciosa and the useful parts of the plant are principally the roots and stalks.
Contact- and stomac poison.
It acts slowwly, but is highly effective, even when the insect does not appear to have been immediately affected. Eating, movement and breeding gradually cease after contact (70).
Black carpet beetle - Attagenus piceus (133)
Codling moth - Cydia pomonella (133)
American bollworm - Heliothis armigera (70)
European corn borer - Ostrinia nubilatis (133)
Melon worm - Diaphania hyalinata (133)
Oriental fruit moth - Cydia molesia (133)
Imported cabbage worm - Pieris rapae (133)
Squash bug - Anasa tristis (133)
Ryania is not effective against :
House flies - (133)
Onion thrips - Thrips tabac (116)
Pea aphid - Acyrtosiphon pisum (133)
Red mites - Tetranychus spp. (116)
Squash vine borer - Melitta cucurbitae (70)
Tobacco hornworn - Manduca sexta (70)
*Toxicity for vertebrates is very low (70).
*The activesubstances are more stable than those found inthe pyrethrin and rotenone bearing plants. This quality endows ryania with a longer during effetivity hich lasts in the field from 5-9 days (164,116).
*Ryania works simultaneously against the maize stem borer and corn smut (70).
Ryania can be used as a poder or aa spray. The poder is soluble in ater, alcohol, chloroform, acetone, ect.After several extractions in a solvent there remains an amo , non-volatile, very stable powder hich is 700 times more effective than the origonalplant material (70).
*Ryania powder
Dreid roots, leaves or stalks are finely pulverised and mixed with an inert dilutant such as talc or clay. A 40% ryania powder used at the rate of 42 kg per hectare is effective against maize stem borers when dusted on the plants one week after the moths started to emerge (134).
*Sprays
30-40 gm ryania powder dissolved in 7-8 litres of water and filtered is recommended as a spray to combat the codling moth (161). In fruit gardens spraying against caterpillars and beetles every 10-14 days is recommended (35).
Fam. Liliaceae
Sabadilla is a perennial, 50 cm tall, lily-like plant which originated in Venezuela, Colombia and Mexico (116). The parts wich insecticidal properrties are maily the spikes with immature capsule of seeds (4).
Contact- and stomach poison (116).
Inseticidal, repellent, rodenticidal (4,52).
Espace pour photo de Sabadilla
Aphids - general (4)
Armyworm - Spodoptera abyssina (52)
Armyworm - Spodoptera eridania (52)
Avocado lace bug - Ancysta perseae (71)
Cabbage looper - Trichoplusia ni (52)
Cockroaches - general (52)
European corn borer - Ostrinia nubilalis (52)
Flea beetles - general (4)
Gras hoppers - general (4)
Green stink bug - Acrosternum hilaris (71)
Hairy chinch bug - Blissus hirtus (
Leaf bug - Leptoglossus australis (4)
Leaf eating caterpillars - general (4)
Melon worm - Diaphania hyalinata (52)
Potato jassid - Empoasca fabae (71)
Silkworm - Bombix mori (4)
Stinkbug - Bagrada spp. (4)
Thrips - general (71)
Sabadilla has not proved to be effective against:
Dock aphid - Aphis
Peach aphid - Myzus persicae
Spittle bug - Philaenus leucophthalmus
*In contrast to freshly pulverised sabadilla seeds, seeds which have been pulverised for a longer period have a greater insecticidal action. Trials show that the toxicity of a kerosene extract increases with the passage of time, but is must be stored in the dark. There it will remain stable for 1-2 years. Light reduces the effectiveness rapidly (4).
*At room temperature freshy- powdered sabadilla seeds were no effective. By raising temperature of the extractive, however, all inactive samples became potentially toxic. Temperature levels below 75°C caused the initial increase in toxicity, the optimum temperature being 150°C. This temperature appared most favourable for making available the toxic constituents of sabadilla in kerosene.
*Sabadilla preparations are extremely toxic to honey bees.
*A highly toxic preparation can be made by heating 500 gm seed in 4 litres of kerosene for 1 hour at a temperature of 150°C. Heating increases the effectivity (133).
*The toxicity of the powdered seeds is also raised when they are heated whithout the addition of other substances (133).
*The application of heat to the powdered seed and treatment of the powdered seed with soda ash prior to extraction also increased the toxicity of inactive compounds to a considerable degree. When using the combinaison of both soda ash treatment and heat treatment a temperature of 60°C is sufficient to produce an effective (4). Lime and wood ash could also be tried to alkalize the solution (59).
*Good results were obtained with aqueous extracts of sabadilla pretreated with soda-ash against grasshoppers and othrer insects. An extract description of quantities and effectiveness against specific pests was not given (4).
*A 20% sabadilla powder effectively reduced the population of potato jassids (Empoasca fabae). Thrips were only reduced (71).
*A 10% sabadilla powder diluted with talc and used at the rate of 120 kg per hectare produced a more than 90% reduction of hairy chinch bugs (Blissus hirtus) (46).
*Sabadilla powder in combinaison with derris dust successfully controlled cabbage worms and tent caterpillars and was particulary effective against Tephroclystia absinthista (4).
Fam. Araceae
Sweet flag isa perennial plant native to India which has achieved worldwide distribution because of its high medical value. Swamps and still waters are its typical habitats where it can developp considerable stands. It ill grow in situations up to 2000 metres. At these elevations it develops its greatest essential oil content (71).
Sweet flag is easy to cultivate. Due to its site requirements it does not compete ith other crops. In India over 4000 kg of dried rhizomes per hectare can be harvested annually (149). Even through its cultivation is easy and the possibilities as insecticidal plant in field and store are promising its practical importance is still minimal. Scientific investigation started about 1939.
Inseticidal, repellent, antifeedant, antifertile (94).
Espace pour photo de sweet flag
Adzuki bean beetle - Callosobruchus chinensis (52)
Army worms - Spodoptera litura (52)
Fleas - general (52)
Khapra beetle - Trogoderma granarium (52)
Large cabbage worm - Pieris brassicae (13)
Lesser grain borer - Rhizopertha dominica (52)
Mediterannean fruitfly - Ceratitis capitata (52)
Melonfly - Dacus curcubitae (52)
Oriental fruitfly - Dacus dorsalis (52)
Rice weevil - Sitophilus oryzae (52)
*It has been established that sweet flag is not poisonous to hu-mans and warm blooded animals (100). No harmful resuls have been experienced w handling the essential oil except for a slight uneasiness and itching of the eyes when the treated seeds were looked at constantly for a considerable length of time (160).
*When used against pests in the field the crop itself suffers no damage (149).
*When used on crops in store, the germination power is not harmed and the food quality does not suffer (160).
Tests with dried rhizomes in powdered form or in water solutions have demonstrated the effectiveness of sweet flag against beetle larvae and aphids. Water solutions benefit from the addition of a little soap which disperses them better over the leaf and makes them more adhesive.
A useful mixture is 30 gm rhizome powder in 4 litres of water which is either allowed to stand cold for a day or boiled for 45 minutes and cooled before spraying (149).
Sweet flag as an insecticide can be used both in field and store. Most of the available information concers the latter. Practitioners interested in experimenting could contribute a great deal enhance its practical use.
Published results about the use of sweet flag to protect crops in store are mostly based on scientific work. When stransferring scientific results to practical work, data on quantities used are to be considered as a guideline. They have to be adapted to local requirements, as the influences in field conditions are more complex than under laboratory conditions.
Rhizomes of sweet flag are used in two ways :
Powder
Essential oil
*Before grain is stored it should be well mixed with dried, powdered sweet flag rhizome at the rate of 50 kg grain : 1 kg sweet flag (149).
Another source recommends a rate of 100 kg rice : 1 kg sweet flag rhizome (71).
*The effect of the essential oils of sweet flag rhizome on the Adzuki bean beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis) has been investigated by YADAVA (160) with the following results.
5 different formulations were tested with references to knock-down effect (50 % and 100 %) and mortality (50 % and 100 %). The essential oils were obtained from the rhizomes by steam destillation.
Chickpeas were thoroughly coated with wich of the above formulations. About 250 gm of so treated seeds were then put into jars. Into each were then introduced 50 adult weevils.
All formulations were found to be effective. None of the weevils survived and the seeds was not affected. In creased concentratinos brought about an earlier onset of the knock-down effect and a quicker death, particularly in the caes of kerosene preparations. The protection appears to last longer when the treated seed is not exposed to sunlight.
The dried seeds should be dressed with 2 % or 4 % its solution in alcohol or 2 % or 4 % emulsion in water before taking them to godown. This treatment will keep the storage free of pest for at least 4 months. After that, if necessary seeds may be redressed or a light spray with its alcoholic formulation on the heap will suffice to ensure the store to be free of beetles for at least another 6 months.
As its 2 % solution or emulsion may become weak within a short time, the 4 % may preferably be used for a long term storage. The seed dressed with its water-emulsion should by all means be dried before taking them to store. The mixture of essential oil and water should be vigourously shaken before use (160).
Fam. Solanaceae
Tobacco is a native of South America, but today it is grown all over the world, and its cultivation is successful under many ecological conditions. It does not succeed on water- logged soils ane on soils with high salt content . It thrives in warm situations and needs sufficient rain during the youth stage (47, 131).
Leaves and stalks are the plant parts used in crop protection. The highest concentration of nicotine is present in the stalkes and leaf ribs.
Contact-, stomach- and respiratory poison.
Insectcidal, repellent, fungicidal, acaricidal.
Espace pour photo de tobacco (nicotiana tabacum)
*Nicotine is one of the most toxic organic poisons. The nicotine of half a cigarette is sufficient to kill a fully-grown adult human. Therefore it is crucial to avoid any contact with the spray during the application. After the treatment, food plants are not to be eaten for 3-4 days. This time is required for the nicotine (toxic to warm-blooded mammals) to decompose (35).
*Tobacco sprays are more effective when they are used at temperatures above 30°C (84).
Aphids - general (52)
Cabbage orms - general (52)
Caterpillars - general (35)
Flea beetles - general (52)
Grain weevils - general
Leaf miners - general (35)
Mites - general (52)
Stem borers - general (52)
Thrips - general (35)
Rust in beans and wheat (6)
« Kasahui », fungus disease of potatoes (60)
*A spray can be prepared by soaking 1 kg of bru tobacco
stalksand leaves in 15 litrs of water for one day. A small hand ful of soap flakes is added as adhesive agent. After one day the plant parts are filtered out. The sprays is applied immediately ith a sprayer, using a very nozzle. All utensils should be thoroughly cleansed after use.
*250 gof tobacco, 30 gm liquid soap, 4 litres of water. The mixture is simmered for 30 minutes. Then it is diluted at 1 part tobacco decoction : 4 parts water. The effect increased when a little slaked lime is added. This solution controls insects like caterpillars, beetles, stem borers, leaf miners, aphids, thrips and creatures which pass some stage of their life cycle in the soil like cutworms. It does not affect lady birds and their larvae or hoverflies (35).
*In China rice is protected against sterm borers by immersing tobacco stalks in the roughly 5 cm deep water of the paddy fieds. 150-300 kg of stalks are used per hectare. This treatment should be employed after the harvest and lasts for about 2 weeks (53).
*The following tobacco solution was used successfully in the La Paz region of Bolivia against aphids and Kasahui, a fungus disease of potatoes (60) :
4 litres boiling water, ½ kg tobacco leaves, ½ kg tablesspoon quicklime and ½ tablespoon cactus juice (opuntia).
*Beans and weat which were treated with a spray prepared from tobacco ( N. glutinosa) containing 0,01 % activez compounds , weree almost completely protected against rust disease (6).
*As a preventive measure against the leaf curl virus which is carried to green peppers by thrips, young plants in the seedbeds were dusted with tobacco powder before being planted out in the field ().
Tumeric is a perrenal plant with a short stem a short and lufted leaves. It originated in India and Southeast-Asia wher it grows dedicious monsoonforest. In the meantime it has reached worldwide distribution. It thrives up to 2000 metres in places with a rainfall of 1000-2000 mm. It growswell on loams and alluvial soils, but does not tolerate ater logged soil conditions. It is oftengrows as a successional crop to rice or sugar cane, but also in mixed cultivation with vegetables. It is an important spice and has considerable commercial importance as one of the principal ingredients of curry. Tumeric responds well to organic manures and yields from 13.000-33.500 kg/ha of rhizomes.
The rhizomes is the plant part being used in crop protection.
Insecticidal and repellent (52).
Army worms - Spodoptera litura (145)
Caterpillars - general (114)
Cowpea beetle - Callosobruchus maculatus (120)
Grain borer - Sitophilus granarius (72)
Leser grain borer - Rhizopertha dominica (72)
Mites - general
Rice flour beetle - Tribolium spp. (72)
Ricz weevil - Sitophilus oryzae (52)
There is relatively little information from practical experience on the use of insecticidal plants and most of it refers to storage protection :
*PERIES in Sri Lanka describes the following method (114) :
Tumeric root is shredded and coww urine added. The mixture is diluted with water in proportions between 1 : 2 and 1 : 6 and used against insects and in particular against caterpillars. The exact quantities are not given.
In trials a turmeric preparation caused a 90-100 % death rate of the army worm (Spodoptera litura) in 2 days. Dried rhizomes were grated and extrcted with acetone and the solution was diluted with 5 parts of water (145).
ANDEAN LUPIN Andes Seeds antifeedant
Lupinus mutabilis fungicidal
Nematicidal
BASIL Woldwide Leaves insecticidal, repellent,
Ocimum basilicum ripe seeds, growth inhibiting,
esserntial oil against ticks
COCKROACH PLANT Central America Leaves, Stems Contact- and stomac poison
Haplophyton cimidum insecticidal
CROTALARIA rully ripe seeds insecticidal, repellent, nematicidal
Crotalia ochroleuca
CROTON OIL TREE Southeast Asia Seeds, roots insecticidal, molluscicidal
Croton tiglium fish poison
DENNETTA Edible fruit, Contact poison, insecticidal
Dennetta tripetala oil of the fruit
EUCALYPTUS Worldwide Leaves repellent
Eucalyptus spp.
HORSERADISH TREE Worldwide Leaves bactericidal, fungicidal
Moringa oleifera
MELON TREE Worldwide Leaves fungicidal
Carica papaya
THUNDERGOD VINE Rootbark larvicidal, repellent
Tripterygium wilfordii
TOMATO Worldwide Leaves repellent, prevents egg laying
Lycopersicon esculentum
YAM BEAN South- and Ripe seeds Contact- and Stomach poison,
Pachyrrhizus Central America insecticidal, antifeedant
Erosus
ANDEAN LUPIN Unspecific insecticide against soft The cooking water of lupines which
bodied insects and snails. derives from food preparation is sprayed undiluted onto affected plants (42,165).
BASIL Aphids colorado beetles, flies, maggots, A 2 % emulsion is made from the
mosquitos, potato tuber moth, spider mites. essential oil and used as a spray (68).
COCKROACH Army worms, cabbage worms, codling Dried powdered leaves or an aqueous
moths, colorado beetle, european corn extract are made with the stems. A rate
borer, grasshoppers, mexican bean beetle, of 3,3 % plant material was effective
mexican fruit flies, squash bugs. against flying insects (70,133,147).
CROTALARIA Maize weevil, rice weevil. A handful of fully ripe seeds are spread over and between each 5 sacks of beans or maize (49,50).
CROTON OIL TREE Aphids, army worms, flies, silkworms, A water extract is made from the snails. pulverised seeds and used against aphids. No quantities were given (7).
DENNETTA Bean bruchids, cockroaches, maize For storage protection : Dennettia oil used weevils, variegated grasshopper. at the rate of 1 ml per kg protected
cowpeas against the copea beetle for more
than 14 weeks. It protected maize for the
same period when used at the rate of 1 ml
per 1.5 kg.The oil is not watersoluble
which limits its use in the field. However
its use as an emulsion is possible (69).
EUCALYPTUS Bean bruchids, potato tuber moth. To protect beans in store 10-20 eucalyptus leaves should be distributed per kg. Potatoes should be stored on a bed of
Leaves (3,34).
HORSERADISH TREE Phytium debangemum, ( fungus attacking The leaves are worked into the soil one
Mainly seedlings). week before sowing. This time is
sufficient to release the effective
substances into the soil. Principally used
to protect seedlings in seedbeds (9,158).
MELON TREE Coffeerust, powdery mildew. 1 kg of finely shredded leaves is shaken
vigorously in 1 litre of water and then
squeezed through a cloth. 1litre of this
liquid is diluted with 4 litres of soap
solution (made by dissolving 100 gm soap
flakes in 25 litres of water) and then used
as a spray (130).
THUNDERGOD VINE Aphids, cabbage worms, codling moths, Powder : 2 kg root powder dissolved in
cockroaches, european corn borer. 400 litres of water killed 81-96 % of the
larvae of the european corn borer in 48-72
hours (15, 70).
TOMATO Cabbage worms, diamondback moth. Tomato stems are finely shredded covered
with the same quantity of hot water and
allowed to stand for 5 hours. After sieving
this solution is sprayed onto the cabbage
plants. It is best used when the
butterflies of the forementionned pests
are beginning to fly. The spray irrigates
them and prevents them from depositing
their eggs (144).
YAM BEAN Aphids, army worms, cabbage worms To make a spray, 2 kg pulverised yam
diamond back moth, flea beetles, beans are stirred into 400 litres of water
mexican bean beetle, stink bug, (13, 33, 70).
caterpillars general.
Effective sprays are often prepared from a mixture of different insecticidal plants. Most of these plants we have already met, but there are some additions of locally used ones.
To control aphids a strong mixture of chillipeppers, garlic and onions can be made. The three ingredients are finely grated, stirred well with water and sieved. To increase the adhesive properties of the solution liquid soap should be added. The quantities used were not given by the contributor, so experiments should be made with different concentrations on small trials plots .
The following chillipepper/garlic mixture has a repellent effect on leaf-eating pests :
A handful of finely shredded chillis and garlic is well stirred in a litre of water, filtered and used as a spray. When no spray is available the liquid can be distributed by means of a bundle of grasses flicked over the plants. A spreader can also be manufactured from a tin by perforating it at the base (146) .
According to a source in the Philippines a mixture of the plant sap of chillipeppers, lemongrass and agdao leaves is very effective against insects. It is said that even the ‘worst pests’ of rice can be controlled with this preparation.
Each 5-6 tablespoon of the juice mixture from the three plants shouuld be stirred with 4 litres of water and shaken lightly before use. It was stated that 87 % of pests were killed with this preparation, but does not specify which (9).
Rice farmers is Southeast-Asia use the following preparation against stem borers :
Tubli roots (Croton tiglium)
Dried tobacco leaves
Chillipepper
The tubli roots (no quantities given) chopped small and pounded, are mixed with 8 litres of water and the liquid reduced to half by boiling. 50 gm dried tobacco leaves are also mixed with 8 litres of water and also reduced to half by boiling.
4 tablespoon of grated chillipepper are stirred in 2 glasses of water and again reduced to half by boiling.
Finally all three liquids are strained and thoroughly stirred together. For the application 1 glass of this mixture is diluted with 15 litres of water (7).
Derris – Mixture
In the Philippines farmers use the following mixture against the rice pest Leptocorisa acuta :
Derris roots (tobli)
Seeds of Jatropha curcas (tuba)
Seeds of Barringtonia (botung)
The plants parts are dried and powdered. Hot water is then poured over and the mixture allowed to stand for 24 hours before filtering and adding soap. No quantities were given (17).
Cow urine has been used in Sri Lanka with interesting results :
*Insect pests
Cow urine has achieved very good results against mealy bugs and other insects on green beans, melons, cabbages, spinach, tomatoes, okra etc. It has also been used successfully against thrips and mites (113).
In Zimbabwe both cow and human urine have achieved good results against aphids, caterpillars and mites (127).
*Fungi
It was generally annouced but not specified against which fungi the urine is effective (115).
*Virus disease
Particularly against leaf curl in chilli peppers and mosaic virus in chillis and tomatoes (66).
When cow urine is used for plant protection, adequate facilities for its collection must be provided. In Sri Lanka the cows were penned overnight on a concrete floor which sloped to a tank. For 3 cows a tank 0.75 m x 1.35 m proved sufficient . The collected urine was allowed to stand for 2 weeks. Being exposed to sunlight during this time is considered beneficial. As a general guideline PERIES dilutes the urine with 6 parts water. But the right proportions are to find out by the farmer. Tender garden vegetables for exanple, require a less concentrated solution than fully grown citrus trees.Too strong a solution can produce a burning of the leaves (115).
In his first trials RANKIN applied sprays at 1 parts urine : 2 parts of water. Aphids were killed up to 60 % and the american bollworm (Heliothis armigera) up to 10 %. Undiluted urine killed 95 % of the aphids, 67 % of the caterpillars and 83 % of the mites. RANKIN suggests a mixture of 1 : 1 because undiluted urine causes slight damage to the plants (127).
Various plant ingredients can be added to the urine. PERIES has employed assofoeitida, turmeric, neem and tobacco. Such spray prepararions can be used preventively. Thus infestation pressure may be reduced if sprayed in regular intervals. JATRANZA suggests 2-3 sprayings of cow urine at weekly intervals against mosaic virus disease (66).
In the case of uncertainly about the proper concentration, one should try different dilutions at few plants. The right dilution can also be found out by the odour – it should smell mildly.
Cow dung has likewise proved useful in plant protection, 2-3 dried cowpatches are mixed with 10 litres of water in a bucket and stirred daily for 14 days. Stone or ckay dust can be sprinkled into the bucket if the smell becomes unpleasantly strong. These reduce the smell and add useful minerals.
After a 2 weeks fermentation time the mixture is diluted from 3-5 times with water, and can then be used as a spray. It is described as extremely effective and can be applied to all green parts of vegetables and fruit. Although the contributor does not make any specific claims about its results, it seems to be a method worth investigating. Any superfluous liquid can be usefully employed as a fertilizer (114).
Newly plants saplings are often damaged by wild or farm animals. These can be protected by using the animals own dung or urine.
In Ghana fresh dung of the animals to be kept away is mixed with water into a ‘soupy’ consistancy. This ‘soup’ is allowed to stand for 3 days and then applied to the saplings (38).
A farmer on one of the East Indian Ocean islands has protected young trees from goats with a mixture of goat, cow and hen manure, clay dust and diluted urine. With that he painted the woody parts of the sapling at monthly intervals.
Following several application methods of woodash are presented.
½ cup wood ash, ½ cup lime, 4 litres of water.
Mix all together, allow to stand for some hours and then strain. This spray is effective against pests of the cucurbits such as maggots and cucumber beetles (9). Quantities used and timing of application were not indicated by the contributor.
Mix 6 teaspoons of kerosene with 1 kg of wood ash. Dust vegetables early in the morning, twice a week. It is quite effective against sucking type of insects.
Note : Avoid coconut shells or husks ashes, which is quite harmful for vegetable leaves.
This method is recommended as a preventive measure. It is no longer effective once the plants are heavily infested (128).
Wood ash preparations are also effective against fungus diseases such as mildew (125), oidium and rust (34). RANKIN describes the following preparation which is used in Zimbabwe.
A heaped tablespoon of wood ash is stirred vigorously into a litre of water, left to stand overnight, strained and mixed with a cup of sour milk or buttermilk. Before spraying, this mixture is diluted 3 times with water, but the strenght of the solution should be checked by a trial on a small area of plants to discover the most effective dilution (126).
Wood ash is used in the highlands of Ecuador and Peru in dust form. The ash usually derives from the cooking fire. It consists of twigs and logs, particularly of the eucalyptus tree. According to the harvest season ash from staw, maize cobs and quinua is also used so that there is no strict composition (65).
Against the leaf miner (Liriomyza huidobrensis) wood ash is employed successfully. It is applied either as dust or diluted in water (129).
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163 REDKNAP, R.S. (1981)
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