AMARANTHACEAE

Amaranthus spp. – Literally non-fading in Greek. The ancients noted the long-lasting qualities of the flowers and esteemed them as a symbol of immortality.

Origins: The highlands of South America. The white-seeded amaranth was once a staple grain of pre-Columbian civilizations which included the Incas, but the Spanish conquistadors forbade its cultivation on the grounds that it was used in sacrificial ceremonies.

Description: Amaranth is a tall annual with drooping seed heads. The foliage and large flower heads can be very showy being bright red, gold and purple. Grain amaranth often has white seeds that vary in size and take between four and six months to give a crop; leaf amaranth often bears small, black, shiny seeds.

In Australia and New Zealand amaranth is known mainly as a flower and is called Love-Lies-Bleeding and Joseph's Coat. The wild relative "pigweed" (A. powellii & A. retroflexus) can be recognised by its erect spikes on the stem and smaller leaves. In New Zealand a cultivated form of leaf amaranth is called "Tampala".

Cultivation: Amaranth needs fertile soil and a warm growing season. It can be sown by broadcasting. A few species self-seed and should therefore be introduced with care into new areas. However, leaves of all Amaranthus are edible and are eaten as bush foods.

Saving the seed: There are a multitude of varieties which cross with one another very easily. Even some species have been found to cross with one another e.g. A. caudatus and A. hypochondriacus.

For most types, flowering occurs as the days become shorter.

Being wind-pollinated, they will cross with one another if less than 400 metres apart at flowering time. The seed heads mature gradually from bottom to top. Careful selection is needed every time a plant is chosen for seed. Inferior individuals should be rogued, or pulled out, before they can flower and pollinate better plants.

To maximise your seed harvest, shake the near-mature seed heads into a paper bag or onto a canvas while you do the rounds of the garden. If you are growing a fair-sized area, it is faster to cut the heads all at once when most of the seeds are ripe. The fully ripened heads tend to drop their seeds.

Dry for a week and thresh the heads with gloved hands or feet on canvas as the chaff is somewhat prickly. The seeds may be lost when winnowing because the chaff and seeds are of similar size and the seeds are of a light weight. If you heap uncleaned seeds in a bowl and toss them, the light debris will concentrate on the top and can be blown away. Repeat this until only seeds remain.

Storage: Amaranth seed is generally recognized as long-lived, up to five years in the open. Seed size varies considerably, averaging 800 seeds to the gram.

Usage: Amaranth is drought, pest and heat resistant and adapts easily to new environments. This makes it an excellent crop for non-irrigated croplands in developing countries. It is popular as a grain with subsistence-level peasants because it is very productive, grows in poor soil and only a small proportion of the harvest needs to be put aside for the next year's crop.

Amaranth is high in nutritional value, e.g. A. tricolor seeds are rich in calcium, iron, carotenoid pigments and lysine which compares favourably with milk in food value. When blended with grains that lack lysine, amaranth is ideal for lactating mothers, infants and children. The National Academy of Science in the USA sees amaranth as an important source of protein, vitamins, and minerals, particularly in tropical and sub-tropical highlands (National Research Council, 1989).

In China and Vietnam, the young seedlings are uprooted, washed, chopped and briefly steamed. In Singapore, a tall variety is relished for its stems, which are peeled and eaten as asparagus. In the southern states of the USA, the tiny black seeds are broadcast over a well-prepared garden bed and the thinnings are eaten along with collard and other greens.

The Greeks pluck amaranth leaves, boil them, then discard the water containing the oxalic acid which is toxic if taken in great excess.

The dried leaves are added to "mealie meal" (maize porridge), giving it a green colour in Namibia and South Africa. Amaranth is avoided by Zulu warriors as they believe that it weakens them in battle.

In northern India, seeds of A. cruentus are popped and sold as a sweet or a cereal that is light, crunchy and tastes like a nutty popcorn. Amaranth is available as a popped breakfast health food in the USA.

#Its astringent leaves are sometimes eaten for excessive menstruation, and to relieve sore mouths and throats.

Looking around: There is a wonderful leaf amaranth that grows wherever Greeks have settled. The plant yields masses of leaves that are used as a spinach. When heading, it bears drooping red flowers. A Greek gardener in the Brisbane suburb of West End says that one of her wedding presents was a packet of family heirloom amaranth seeds. She uses it in the traditional Greek dishes calling for spinach.

Marie Lee from Pine Creek in the Northern Territory sent us some amaranth seed and said:

&&In 1933, when I was one year old, an old Chinese lady pulled up some red spinach plants and said "soup for baby" to Mum. She wouldn't hand over the seeds at all, so Mum cut off the tops, planted the bottoms, and off the plant went.

It grows in rich, warm, damp soil. When sixty cm (two feet) high, we eat the leaves which have red markings and thick juicy stems. The ball-like seeds grow on the lower stems, whereas they usually appear on the tops.&&

Chinese cooks on cattle stations in the northern part of Australia left behind interesting strains of vegetables, often including amaranth, and these can still be found today, especially where fresh food is a scarce commodity.

ASTERACEAE

Cynara scolymus – cynara is the Latin name for the wild cardoon, and scolymus, from the Greek scolops, means "pointed".

Origins: The globe artichoke is probably native to the Mediterranean seashore and the Canary Islands. The ancient Romans relished a primitive form of artichoke. The Italians have made selections of purple and green artichokes since the 15th century.

Description: Artichokes are attractive plants that can be long-lived when grown in the right area. They flower from early spring through to autumn, according to climate and variety. The artichoke produces a stalk that grows up to two metres high with numerous branches. Eventually this will be topped by the delicious bud, which will turn into a spectacular purple flower. Leaves are large and look like a Scotch thistle's – grey above, whitish and furry underneath. They are also called globe artichokes, to distinguish them from Jerusalem artichokes, a different plant (separate entry).

Cultivation: Artichokes thrive in deep, rich soils in maritime climates. Although unusual in New Zealand, they do well at sea level as far south as Christchurch in the South Island. They will rot if the soil is cold and waterlogged in winter.

After they have borne a crop, cut the stems thirty cm (a foot) above the ground and mulch them well to protect their delicate roots from winter temperatures.

In the tropics and sub-tropics, the wet weather and hot summer sun are a problem. If you love them, give them a little shade. A slight application of salt is beneficial.

In Permaculture, as in any good management system, the garden space around the plant can be filled in with lettuces or other shallow-rooted crops.

Artichokes can escape cultivation and have become rampant around Melbourne and Adelaide, and naturalized in temperate areas of NSW.

Propagation: The preferred way is to propagate from the suckers (sometimes called side shoots, or slips) from plants that produce a good-sized terminal bud. Plants started from seeds will not produce many buds, if any, in the first year.

During the spring the plant will produce up to fifteen suckers, of which only half a dozen of the largest should be left on the plant to grow into large shoots for propagation. When these selected suckers start growing leaves thirty cm long, cut them neatly from the base of the plant with as many small roots as possible intact and replant in a permanent place. This is the way to ensure an artichoke variety will reproduce true-to-type.

Saving the seed: For obtaining a new variety, start with seeds and select repeatedly from the offspring. A high proportion of the seedlings may revert to the spiky type which should be rogued out.

Large purple flowers will form on top of the thick stems. Only the best fruit, with an outstandingly large base, should be left to go to seed. Let them pass the edible stage – their scales will get hard and purple florets will cover the head.

Suppress the little side buds on the same stem to give more strength to the heads reserved for seed. In Brittany, western France, farmers bend the stalks down to protect the seed heads from the rain. The seeds are found in the seed case after the white thistle down has blown away. It is a prickly affair to retrieve the seeds because the calyx is spiny.

Storage: The seeds will last for five years if kept cool and dry. They are grey, angular, oblong and flattened. There are thirty seeds to the gram.

Usage: Kitchen Talk Newsletter of June-July 1991 featured the history and usage of the globe artichoke. One story noted that it is the only vegetable that appears to leave more on your plate, after you have eaten it, than when you started it: "A large part of the pleasure derived from a globe artichoke lies in the knowledgeable and slow unwrapping of the mystery – separating, classifying, selecting and nibbling as you go on – until the prize, the delicious and nutty bottom of the bud, is finally revealed," says Michael Boddy.

Here is a classic recipe: Pick the flower buds when young (before the tips of the scales become hard and dark); steam the whole artichoke and eat the base of each scale dipped in a dressing made of good wine or cider vinegar, mustard and olive oil. The central leaf stalk is eaten blanched just as cardoons are. The dried flowers fetch a good price at the florist if picked in their prime.

#Artichokes tend to lower the urea level of the blood and combat excess acidity, rheumatism, liver malfunction and bad breath! They are recommended for nursing mothers trying to wean babies, as they slow down lactation.

Cynarin, a constituent of artichoke, is a sweet-tasting chemical that is soluble in water and saliva, and is the basis of the Italian aperitif Cynara. Cynarin will sweeten the taste of anything you eat afterwards. It is also known as a liver protector in animals, and has been formulated into a drug for lowering cholesterol (Kitchen Talk Newsletter, No 12).

Looking around: If you have an early frost it may be worthwhile to propagate the green globe type, which is ready up to twenty days earlier than the purple. But the purple strains are known to be better eating.

The seeds of only two strains are available commercially in Australia, but there are many more varieties in the Italian community. Ask for the dwarf perpetual artichoke which produces buds for most of the year, providing it is frequently watered. This particular variety is very tender and mostly eaten raw. There is a Purple of Tuscany and a Green of Florence, both of which have the distinction of being eaten whole when very young.

LILIACEAE

Asparagus officinalis – in Greek, asparagus means "first sprout" and in Latin officinalis, "the apothecary shop".

Origins: Asparagus is a native of coastal areas and river banks of Europe and southern Russia. It has been taken from its natural habitat to the garden and slowly improved by selection. Seed savers have been at work!

The Romans cultivated it and so did the Gauls, who used it as a medicinal plant. It has now reverted to its wild form in many wasteland areas and become bush tucker.

Description: Asparagus is a perennial and a Permaculture plant par excellence. It has both male plants and female plants (i.e. it is dioecious). The flowers on the male plants look like yellowish green bells and the female's flowers are smaller and quite inconspicuous. Asparagus plants are ferny and grow to one and a half metres.

Cultivation: Thorough preparation of the soil is needed, including a large proportion of sand, along with high fertility. Asparagus is highly salt resistant and a light application of salt – up to thirty grams, or an ounce, per plant – is even recommended.

The male plants produce more spears earlier in the growing season than the female plants which have rather thick and tender spears. For good production, give the best conditions from the start and keep feeding and mulching deeply every winter. Care should be taken not to harvest in the first two or three years while the plant is gathering strength.

Propagation: Asparagus is generally propagated by dividing the root of plants that are at least three years old. This is done in winter when there is no visible growth. Lift the tangles of roots and crowns, which will look like bunches of stiff seagrass, and tease them out into separate crowns. Trim the roots back to fifteen cm (six inches).

Plant in furrows about forty cm deep, placing the crowns onto a small mound in the centre of the furrow. Fill up the furrow with good rich compost.

Saving the seed: Asparagus can also be propagated by seed, but this takes longer than doing so from crowns because the plants need an extra year before they are ready for harvesting. To obtain seeds, leave the most vigorous female plants, with at least one male nearby. Following cross-pollination by insects, scarlet berries will form on the female plants in autumn. The ripe fleshy berries containing half a dozen black seeds are picked, crushed, washed and dried in the shade.

If you are an asparagus collector who wants to propagate from seeds and have more than one variety, be aware that bees will cross-pollinate them. Plant the seeds in spring in fine rich soil and transplant the seedlings the following year, choosing only the strongest. Select for the desired characteristics in the subsequent years.

Storage: Seeds will last between three and five years. There are fifty seeds to the gram.

Usage: When young shoots are eaten raw, they give maximum nutritional value. Otherwise they are boiled upright in bunches from three to ten minutes according to age and size. The reliable old "billy" (no aluminium please!) is a good vessel for this.

Serve with butter, lemon, or as the French do – while still hot, douse with vinaigrette dressing, allow to cool and serve as an entree.

Some gardeners prefer their asparagus green, while others produce fat white spears by heaping soil, leaves, straw or seaweed over the whole bed and cutting the spears off deep under this mulch.

The Chinese use several species of asparagus, both medicinally and as a food.

#Medicinally, asparagus is used to stimulate lazy intestines, because its high fibre content helps bowel movements. It is not indicated for people with rheumatoid arthritis. It increases the flow of urine and perspiration, along with cell production in the kidneys, but should not be eaten when the kidneys are inflamed. It is believed to increase the libido.

Looking around: In Geelong, Victoria a certain Monsieur Tournouer grew asparagus plants that he brought from France in 1866. Other French settlers introduced their plants to different parts of Australia, both before and after that time. Some of the original strains may well have survived and would be worth tracking down and tasting.

Supermale produces only males which means there is no competition for the established plants from volunteer seedlings.

Ask around for Grosse Blanche, Asperge Verte, Asperge d'Argenteuil, which bears even-sized spears until the season finishes, and Asperge de Vineuil which is suitable to cool, foggy areas. English-named varieties include Early Giant and Violet of Holland (the ancestor of many of today's varieties), which have pink or purple tips; Connover's Colossal, which has very thick spears, may not be as appetizing. California 500, which is an improvement on Mary Washington, is popular in New Zealand.

BASELLACEAE

Basella alba and B. alba var. rubra – Basella is this plant's name in Malabar on the east African coast; alba means "white" and rubra "red" in Latin, referring to the colours of the stems.

Origins: Asia and Africa.

Description: The plants are twiners, and can climb two metres up a trellis or bush. Otherwise they will sprawl over the ground and twist themselves gently. The flowers are small, green and are produced at the leaf axils. Also known as Ceylon, Malabar and Indian Running Spinach.

Cultivation: Although basella grows well in a climate with a wet summer, it will grow almost anywhere. The hotter and wetter, the better. Basella is very easily grown organically because it is rarely attacked by insects. The seeds germinate readily and can be planted directly in the garden, or in seedling punnets or trays.

Propagation: Take cuttings from well-established basella plants and bury them at least half way up the stem in good soil. They will quickly send down their own roots in warm and wet weather.

Saving the seed: Basella goes to seed as the weather cools down. Pick the berries when they are dark purple. They have only one seed in each of them. Rub them clean with gloves and wash them under a tap until the water runs clear. Alternatively, leave the skin and flesh on them. Dry on a wire screen before storage.

Storage: The seeds look like peppercorns and store for five years in a cool, dark and dry place. There are fifty seeds to the gram.

Usage: The mucilaginous leaves and tender stalks are used as a spinach, or in soups and stir fries. Their oxalic acid content is low and they are very rich in minerals and vitamins. Cooking should be brief to retain these nutrients – more than a minute creates a sloppy mess. Our kids write on their bodies with the inky berries.

G.A.C. Herklots, whose knowledge about Asian vegetables was already profound by the time he was interned in Hong Kong during World War Two, records that, in China, basella was grown for its seeds, the flesh of which were used as a dye in rouge and sealing wax (Herklots, 1972). This dye is also a safe, natural colouring for jellies, pastries and sweets.

# When taken regularly as a spinach, basella is a mild laxative.

Looking around: Bunches of basella shoots are seen for sale in summer in the Chinese and Vietnamese parts of Australian cities and can be used for propagation. There is a small-leafed variety which is tastier than the large, thick-leaved strain.

There is also a Chinese species, B. corifolia, with a heart-shaped leaf. This particular basella does not run to seed as early as the other species and reputedly has a superior taste. Eclipse is not as rampant as other varieties and is very suited to greenhouse culture.

LABIATAE

Ocimum basilicum, O gratissimum, O. sanctum and O. canum – from the Greek ocimon for basil and the Latin basilicum for "royal", gratissimum for "very agreeable", sanctum for "holy" and canum for "hoary".

Origins: There are several species of basil, all of them native to Africa and Asia.

Description: There are both perennial and annual basils, and their shape and size range from almost prostrate, to mighty bushes two metres high.

Cultivation: Basil is rather a warm season plant. In cool climates, plant for summer cropping. Perennial basils thrive with a winter pruning.

Propagation: Both perennial and annual basils can be propagated by cuttings. This way, there is no need to be concerned with isolation distances. Just pop the bottom ends of the stalks in a glass of water until white roots start appearing, then replant. Annual basils are usually propagated by seed.

Saving the seed: Basil flowers are coloured white through to purple. They have an abundant and pungent nectar, and rely on insect pollination; so one basil will cross with others. You will need to separate different varieties by as much garden space as possible – preferably fifty metres.

The seeds mature from the bottom to the top of the flower, and capsules generally contain four seeds. Either cut the stalks or rub your hand up them when the top seed capsules turn brown and brittle.

Dry on a sheet of paper or in a paper bag. Rub well when the seed capsules are crisp and dry, either in between the hands or on a small gauged wire mesh to dislodge the four seeds contained in each capsule.

Place the crushed mixture in a large bowl and carefully whirl the lot until the seeds gather at the bottom of the bowl and the chaff on top. Pick out the bulky chaff with your fingers; the rest can be gently blown over. A very small gauged sieve will let the dust fall through but not the seed.

Storage: The seeds will last up to five years sealed away in a dark, dry, cool place. They are small and spherical, and there are 600 to the gram.

Usage: Pesto has become a popular sauce to serve with pasta. It is a heady mix of sweet annual basil, garlic, Parmesan cheese, olive oil and pine nuts (macadamias can be substituted here) ground up together.

#Basil is recommended as a tea for some forms of headache. A fine powder made of the dried basil leaves was used in the olden days as a snuff, to clear blocked noses.

Looking around: Every Greek and Vietnamese front yard seems to have basil plants. Basil releases its aroma on touch. Some Greek families use them as a border plant along a footpath that is upwind of the front door so they have advance notice of visitors – a kind of olfactory bell.

O. basilicum is the sweet annual basil of European origin; ask your Russian friends for the famous "Malarossy Bazilike". Ask your Spanish friends for "Albaca Menuda" (Fine Basil) and "Albaca de Hojas de Ortiga", or Nettle-leafed Basil which is called "Basilico Arricciato" by the Italians. Try your luck with your Italian friends for "Basilico Maggiore Nero" (Large Purple). The most authentic basil for use in pesto is Picollo which is a dwarf variety that is often seen on the window sill in Italy, where it can be harvested as often as needed without having to walk into the garden. This is good planning!

The largest lettuce-leafed type is Mammoth which has leaves as big as saucers, and is ideal for drying.

Then there is Holy Basil, "Ram Tulsi" in India, O. sanctum, sacred plant of the gods Krishna and Vishnu. It is bushy and has purple calyces. O. gratissimum is cultivated in Thailand and Malaysia as "Selaseh Besar", coming in several exotic scents. It has quite small leaves.

Asian shops often have very unusual basils, such as lemongrass, anise and cinnamon-scented ones, which can all be grown from cuttings. Scented basils are an essential ingredient in Thai cooking.

O. canum is the Hoary Basil or "Kemangi" in Java and Malaysia. It is an annual with a lot of branches no higher than one metre tall. The very aromatic leaves are used in Laksa, a Malay-Chinese rice noodle soup dish. The leaves are eaten as a spinach and the seeds are used to make a jelly.

LEGUMINOSAE

Phaseolus vulgaris – phaselos is Greek for bean, and vulgaris "common" in Latin.

(see separate entries for Broad Bean, Guada Bean, Lima Bean, Runner Bean, Snake Bean, Soya Bean, Winged Bean and Yam Bean).

Origins: Although there are records of bean cultivation in Mexico in 4000 BC, the plants seem to have originated from the temperate regions of South America.

Ethno-botanists focus on the Incas of Peru as the domesticators of beans and surmise that they were transported in successive waves northwards through Central and North America. The invention of pottery 6000 years ago in South America is thought to have enabled the boiling of dried beans. Prior to that, beans were eaten green.

Description: Some beans are grown to be eaten green when the pods are tender (that's the French bean sold by greengrocers), and others are eaten dried (that's the Kidney, Navy bean, etc., sold by grocers). The first have either no parchment (inner skin) in their pods, or a very thin one, and the second usually have a thick parchment.

Apart from the green beans being left to mature and dry on the bush, the seed-saving techniques for both green and dried beans are very similar, so we will deal with both together. Some of the many other species known as "beans" are covered elsewhere in this book.

Both French and Kidney beans have two growing habits: dwarf (bush) and climbing (pole).

In the 16th century, Pope Clement the Seventh seemed to have had vision with beans – he distributed, in ceremonies of great pomp, bags of beautiful-looking beans to the populace. When his niece married the French King Francois I, he gave her large quantities of multicolored beans to replant in France, saying that she should be more proud of her wedding present than "all the jewels of the crown".

Beans spread so fast from the Americas to Asia that for a long time they were considered in Europe to be of Chinese origin.

Cultivation: Plant the seeds directly in the position they are to grow because they do not survive transplanting very well. Dwarf (bush) beans need a less rich soil than climbers because they have lower yields and stay for a shorter period in the ground. A climbing bean can yield up to three times more than a dwarf type.

In warmer Australia and New Zealand, beans fit in well after a crop of potatoes. A good hilling helps to protect them from wind damage. Care should be taken to not bruise plants while cultivating in wet weather lest they become more prone to disease, such as anthrachnose.

Saving the seed: Accidental hybridization (crossing) rarely occurs because pollination happens mostly before the bean flower opens (i.e. automatic pollination). This explains why so many gardeners have been able to keep their favourite strains pure for decades.

Despite this different climbing varieties are best planted two metres apart to ensure a hundred percent purity. It is also a good practice to avoid planting two different varieties of climbing beans with the same coloured seed side by side because they will be hard to sort at harvest.

Beans grown for seeds are grown no differently than dry beans for home consumption, except that at an early stage those with leaf discolouration, bacterial blight or any other sign of disease should be rogued out. Select the finest individual plants and identify with a ribbon or similar tag.

Traditional gardeners say that cutting off the tops of the climbing varieties causes the lower bean cluster to grow larger. Some gardeners believe that seeds selected from the top of the bush will grow into plants with a predisposition to flower poorly at lower and mid-level.

If the weather is wet at harvest, the beans may be picked and dried randomly as they come to the yellow pod stage. With dwarf varieties, when the pods turn yellow brown, the whole bush can be uprooted and hung in a dry, airy space. Leave all the pods on the bush to dry completely. Pod out the beans from their shells. If you have large quantities, hang them in hessian bags and beat them with a stick.

Assessment of the dryness of the seed needs to be made during the next stage. Test the beans by biting with a gentle pressure. No impression should be made. Discard blemished and shrivelled seeds. Usually you will need to dry them for a further one or two weeks.

Store them in airtight containers on a dry day. Weevils lay their eggs under bean seed coats and the seeds will be eaten when they hatch. Freeze the dried beans in a jar for forty eight hours to kill weevils and their eggs.

Storage: The seeds will last three years. Some will germinate if kept for several years, but not as vigorously. Bean seed size ranges from five to ten per gram.

Usage: Dried beans are the "meat" for 300 million people in the world today (Geneflow journal, 1992). Combined with a cereal and a small amount of seed oil, they make a complete meal.

#Green bean juice is a diuretic: one glass before breakfast is recommended. The cooking water from dry and green-shelled beans revives the colour in printed cotton fabrics when added to the wash.

Looking around: The beauty of beans is so marked that ethno-botanists think that there was religious significance to human beings in their colour patterning and forms. Active subscribers of Seed Savers are maintaining hundreds of varieties of beans.

Wally Bergman, a coalminer from Mackay, Queensland, has collected and maintained more than one hundred sorts of beans over the years. He even buys stocks from seed companies that are about to discontinue lines. He has rescued some beautiful strains from Goodwins, a small Tasmanian family seed company. Bill Hankin, in the Snowy Mountains, is another enthusiastic bean collector. Beans seem to enthuse their collectors more than most other vegetables.

We will look at green, then dried bean varieties.

Dwarf: Bush beans include New Discovery, Feltham Prolific, Emperor William, Perfect Bush, Tweed Wonder, Canadian Wonder and Magnum Bonum. In Queensland, Redlands Beauty and Redlands Greenleaf were bred by the Department of Primary Industries for their resistance to the fungal diseases that are common in that State's wet and hot weather.

All the beans whose names start with "College" were bred by the NSW Department of Agriculture and have been popular with market gardeners and canneries.

Climbing: For these a trellis, fence, or tripod will need to be provided. Many beans that arrived in Australia in the early years were quite large and suited the big families of the day. General Mackay has pods thirty cm (a foot) long and quite wide.

The Muffet Bean, which arrived from England to be established in the Goulburn, NSW, area in 1827, was a large bean that would have helped to feed the fourteen registered children of Ken Muffet's great grandfather. It contains up to twelve beans in one pod and is possibly a Caseknife. This name indicates their large size. Ken and his relatives still grow this old-fashioned bean and it means a lot to them.

The Lohrey's Special Bean, with a natural salty flavour, and a butter bean from Rocky Cape in Tasmania, named the Magpie because of its black and white seed, were saved for fifty years by the one family.

We have been sent dozens of types of Zebra beans with names such as Count Zeppelin, Scotia, Mollie's, Greek and Mrs O'Brien's Zebra Beans. They come from various states of Australia, some having arrived with German settlers. Doreen Bollen from Toronto near Newcastle, NSW, who has saved and grown a Zebra bean for forty years, says that, "My father-in-law got them in Bellingen (NSW) from a lady who had them from an old man who had brought them from Germany years ago!"

The Nardi Bean is one that performs well even in poor soils. It first arrived in Australia from the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu) in the late 1800's with the Nardi family who settled in New Italy, a hamlet near Lismore, NSW.

You may wonder why anyone would want to collect so many Zebras that apparently looked the same. Isn't one enough? The reasons are that because they emanated from different regions before they came to Australia, they were adapted to different climatic conditions, soils and grow in different regions of Australia. These unique properties had earned them the right to be grown and protected - and still do.

Yellow-podded varieties, both dwarf and climbing (such as Bountiful Delicacy, Mammoth Golden Cluster and Kentucky Wonder Wax) are known for their fine flavour. Butter beans such as Cherokee Wax used to be very popular in New Zealand.

Many varieties of Barlotti (or Borlotti) beans, both dwarf and climbing, exist amongst the Italo-Australian community. They are characterized by speckled brown and red pods with very fat seeds. The Atherton Tablelands in northern Queensland, the Riverina area of southern NSW and Shepparton and Mildura in Victoria are all strong Italian farming communities (Jupp, 1988). A climbing variety resistant to rust – the Mangere bean, with waxy pods – has been developed in New Zealand.

Barlotti beans are also used green-shelled. The very tender Green Flageolet Bean used for making cassoulet is grown and distributed by Michel Porcher at Gisborne, Victoria.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Beta vulgaris – beta is the name that the ancient Romans gave to the Beet, vulgaris stands for "common". Silver beet (chard), sugar beet, mangels and fodder beet are also classified as B. vulgaris (see Silver Beet). The other three are grown as animal food and are not dealt with in this handbook.

Origins: Wild beets are native to northern Africa and the coast of Spain and Portugal. They spread to northern Europe with the Romans who fed them to both their troops and horses. Beets adapted very well to cold northern winters and from them, sugar beet and the round red beet were developed. Collections of the wild relatives of beetroot are being made in Sicily and Portugal for large scale gene banks.

Description: The many forms of beet share the common characteristic of having a swollen root and spear shaped leaves.

Cultivation: Beetroot is a biennial. It is not very hardy in prolonged harsh winters but will take some below zero temperatures. It is sown in winter in warm climates and late summer in cool climates.

It is salt tolerant by nature. For quality seed production, an application of common salt at thirty grams to the square metre (an ounce to the square yard) or boron in the form of borax at one tenth of that rate is recommended.

Saving the seed: The roots attain full size during their first year of growth and in the second year send up an angular seed producing stalk. The plant then dies off. This is typical of a biennial. However, in places where the difference of day-length between seasons is not marked, such as far northern Australia, beetroot may not go to seed at all.

In cold climates they are lifted for evaluation at the beginning of winter, stored in moist sand, then re-selected for replanting in spring according to their true-to-typeness, appropriate size and even colour. They will go to seed in the summer. To preserve the diversity of the strain, a good dozen (at the very least six) should flower together, especially if the variety is rustic and shows a lot of character.

To encourage larger seed balls on the lower parts of the branches, the top and side branches should have their tips, which have quite small seeds, cut off. Seeds can be picked individually as they ripen, or the whole stalk cut down and hung to dry further. Strip the branches by hand into a garbage bin or an equally wide container.

Each seed ball contains from two to six individual seeds. As they are hard to separate, you will end up with small groups of seedlings wherever you plant a seedball. Plant breeders have developed a strain of sugar beet with a single seed ball, so that there is no need to thin the seedlings.

Beetroot is pollinated by both insects and wind. The pollen is very fine and can fly long distances. Depending on wind direction and ferocity, commercial seed growers isolate beetroot from silver beet, sugar beet and fodder beets, that are flowering at the same time, by 250 to 500 metres. Few gardeners actually allow their beets to get to the flowering stage, so there is little chance of crossing.

Storage: Seeds keep for four to six years. That is rather long-lived for a vegetable seed and there is usually less than fifty percent germination at that stage. There are fifty seeds to the gram.

Usage: Beetroot is grated raw and dressed, or steamed, sliced and covered in vinegar and a touch of sugar – the old Aussie way. The leaves are edible and make a nutritious spinach.

#The root is not recommended for diabetics because of its high sugar content.

Looking around: The Italians introduced red beetroot to the rest of Europe, and French gardeners made lots of selections. Ask Middle Eastern folks for red ones and look for yellow ones in old German settlements, such as the Barossa Valley, the Murray flats, and York Peninsula in South Australia, and Tarrington, the Mallee and Geelong in western Victoria. In New South Wales, German settlers also established themselves on the edges of cities, often as market gardeners.

Bull's Blood, an ancient variety, is also grown for its reddish, purple leaf. Early Wonder is an old flat type that is suitable to early planting and has been replaced by both Early Market and the Dutch bred Boltardy. Detroit Dark Red is often used as a main crop of the mid-season. In New Zealand, Crimson Globe, Rapid Red, Dewar's Dwarf and Early Flat Egyptian, which Yates distributed from early this century until the mid-thirties, may still be grown in some North Island gardens.

The long and half-long types are often of good quality but their hairy appearance and lack of uniformity made them less popular in the past, so many tasty strains have disappeared. Century, Obelisk, and Winter Keeper are in this long-rooted group.

CUCURBITACEAE

Momordica charantia – from mordes, "to bite", because the seeds have the appearance of being bitten.

Origins: Tropics of Africa and Asia.

Description: A slender annual climbing to two metres. The fruit looks like a light jade-coloured stalactite and is picked for the kitchen while still immature, hard and green.

Also called Bitter Cucumber and Basalm Pear, or Peria in Malaysia, Kiuri in Japan, Karawila in Ceylon. The Chinese say "Fu Kwa."

Cultivation: Sow seeds in place in spring next to a trellis.

Saving the seed: Bitter gourds do not cross with other Cucurbits. Allow the fruits to ripen until they become yellow-orange and soft. Even if they are purchased at a store the fruits may mature if left in a paper bag in a warm spot for a few days. They will split open, dramatically displaying rows of shiny blood-red seeds. These should be scooped out and soaked for a day to get rid of the red flesh.

Underneath, the seeds are beige and hard shelled, and need to be dried before storing. Bitter gourds self-seed, and are often seen on fences long after Asian occupants have left.

Storage: The seeds will last five years in good conditions and there are twelve seeds to the gram.

Usage: High prices are asked for bitter gourds in Asian and inner city grocery stores. In India they are used a great deal in pickles and curries. The bitter taste becomes somewhat addictive in the same way as that of olives, but it can be leached out with water. The Chinese cut the fruit in half and briefly steam or parboil it. They then cover it in soya sauce and serve it as a condiment. The leaves are used in curry in India.

#Bitter gourds are used in Oriental medicine for the quinine content which gives the bitter taste. The fruit is considered beneficial for diabetics. The seeds are a powerful laxative, not to be treated lightly! In China, crushed seeds are applied to carbuncles.

Looking around: There are many varieties of bitter gourds, including white ones, such as Moonshine which has ivory white skin and is specially adapted to a greenhouse. Bengal Pride has smooth, dark green fruit and is the most productive of all varieties. In capital cities, look in Chinese and Vietnamese groceries for imported seed packets. Virtually every region of Asia has its own strain of bitter gourd, some of which may be growing on your street.

boraginaceae

Borago officinalis – from the Latin burra meaning "rough", referring to the hair on the stem and leaves; officinalis is Latin for the "apothecary shop".

Origins: A native of the eastern Mediterranean region from where it was taken by the Crusaders to western Europe. Favoured by the ancient Greeks who fed their warriors the flowers to give them courage before battle. In the Middle Ages, borage tea was taken by participants before jousts and tournaments. The Welsh named it "Llanwenlys" – the herb of courage.

Description: Borage is an annual with rough wide leaves and clusters of star-shaped blue blossoms hanging from hairy stems.

Cultivation: Borage is most profuse and naturalizes even in poor soils. When planted on top of a hill it will self-seed its way down.

Saving the seed: To obtain a heavy flowering do not overfeed, or the plant will produce mostly leaves. The luminous blue flowers are almost constantly in bloom and attract bees. The seed capsule, containing one or two rounded seeds ,with an apex should be picked one by one when dry. They need only a little more drying to be stored.

Borage seeds throw true-to-type. Strict selection is not needed to maintain the quality of seed of the strain.

Storage: The seeds will last over five years and there are sixty five seeds to the gram.

Usage: The flowers and the young tips are used in salad. The leaves are used in soup by eastern Europeans, who also eat the young leaves as a spinach. The bluish-green foliage has sharp little hairs that may irritate fingers.

Its ever-falling leaves turn into a rich, black and spongy compost, making it the ultimate mulch producer. Borage is a companion to strawberries, though when grown amongst them it must be trimmed for mulch several times a season.

#A poultice of steamed leaves is applied to reduce inflamed swellings. Its high potassium content makes borage a natural strengthener for the nervous system. It is said to increase milk flow in lactating mothers. People with high blood pressure, diabetes or liver problems require additional potassium and borage is a very rich source of this mineral. The dried flowers are a colourful ingredient in potpourri.

LEGUMINOSAE

Vicia fava – vicia was the name for vetch in Latin and fava for the broad bean itself.

Origins: Broad beans have been cultivated since prehistoric times in Europe. They were unearthed in the ancient city of Troy and found in Egyptian tombs and with Bronze Age artefacts in Switzerland. Their exact origin has therefore been hard to determine. It is recorded that the Romans used them as voting tokens and that they reached China by the first century AD.

Before the explorers brought the common bean back from the Americas, the only bean that Europeans and Middle Easterners knew was the broad bean. Folk (or primitive) varieties grow in the Sahel, the southern part of the Sahara Desert, in poor agricultural lands.

Description: Broad beans are a hardy bush. They are also called Horse beans, and in northern Africa, where a smaller version is common, Tick beans.

Cultivation: Broad beans respond well to the addition of compost and moderate soil moisture. May to July is the best time for planting in most areas. Prune the tops when the bushes are half-grown to encourage branching and try these as a salad green or spinach.

The beans are best planted in double rows or blocks because then they support each other. In New Zealand, many experienced gardeners often surround their double rows of long pod types with stakes, fix a rigid rail on top and tie strings around. It makes harvesting them easier, considering each plant might have five stalks which often fall over each other.

Broad beans can be cut back to the ground after a sub-tropical winter and can be expected to shoot again.

Saving the seed: Broad beans are partly self-pollinated and partly cross-pollinated. Several hundred metres is a fair isolation distance to ensure purity if you happen to be growing more than one variety.

The first pods to form are best for seeds. They are to be found at the base and are larger than subsequent pods. Allow the pods to dry on the bush and choose those from the most vigorous individual plants. Such refined steps cannot be taken on a large scale where a whole field is combine-harvested and threshed.

Shell out the beans and dry on a rack until a bite on the seed will produce only a little mark. Thresh and store in a loose knit bag. The bean seeds will not need any winnowing.

Storage: Seed can last for up to ten years but only if kept in conditions with low humidity and constant temperature. Completely dried beans stored in an airtight jar and put away in a cool spot for four years have a ninety percent rate of germination. But only half of them would germinate if kept at room temperature. There are 1000 seeds to the kilogram.

Usage: Broad beans are not always seen for sale as a fresh vegetable, so growing them at home is the way to ensure you have this taste sensation. They can be picked at different stages of growth to give different dishes.

The dry beans ferment vigorously to a very palatable wine. A paste of one or two powdered dry beans and water left to ferment for a day or two is a traditional starter for sourdough bread.

#A tea made with the dried flowers will work for some types of migraines. In France, two powdered dried beans are taken with wine on an empty stomach to dissolve stones in the urinary tract. A small percentage of people with Mediterranean ancestry have a genetic inability to digest fava beans and can become ill by eating enough of them over time.

Looking around: The Geneflow journal (1989) mentions that cultivars collected in Sicily, Portugal, and Cyprus show a great diversity of type and landrace. Wide variation was evident in respect of the size and shape of the grains as well as the earliness of the crop.

For colder areas, there are the long-podded types with up to eight beans in a pod. They are hardy and are ready for planting from early through to late autumn. Examples are Early Long Pod, Polar and Acquadulce. Longfellow produces up to ten beans in a pod.

Red Epicure is grown for its chestnut flavour and colour and is hardy and heavy cropping. The Windsor or Broad-Pod beans will not survive winter in frosty areas but will die back and shoot from the roots in spring. Their pods have up to five beans in them and they have a pronounced flavour. The dry seeds of Green Windsor are green and hold their colour when cooked.

Scarlet Cambridge has a deep burgundy-coloured bean. The Sutton is a much-branching bush with white-seeded pods that mature early. Dwarf broad beans are useful for windy areas: Cole's Early Dwarf is one of the many good English types and bears all its pods touching the ground.

Brassicaceae

Brassica oleracea var. italica – brassica is simply the name used by the Romans from a Celtic word for cabbage, and oleracea for "vegetable-like".

Origins: A descendant of kale which is native to the western coast of Europe.

Description: Broccoli was developed for market gardening in Italy in the last 150 years. Prior to the turn of this century, purple broccoli was more common than green and the name "broccoli" referred to the tender shoots produced by some types of overwintered cabbages.

There are two types of broccoli: heading and sprouting. Heading types (var. botrytis) have virtually disappeared in Australasia. They take a long time to mature and are suitable for areas which are too cold for cauliflowers.

The broccoli that is now produced so widely is green sprouting broccoli. It has two growth habits – one with a central head, and one that produces numerous small flower heads along the stalk (e.g. the sprouting Calabrese). It grows well in summer in cool southern Australia and in winter in warmer Australia.

Cultivation: Do not overmanure or you will get lots of leaves and small heads but, by splitting the fertilizing between planting time and mid-season, a large seed crop is ensured. You have to keep harvesting sprouting broccoli for eating because it keeps on sending up side shoots whose flowers quickly open. For seed production, let all the shoots go to seed. It is a spectacle.

Saving the seed: Broccoli is a biennial, but if planted in warmer climates it will produce seeds in only one growing season. Broccoli is cross-pollinated and individual plants of broccoli are normally self-sterile, so leave at least two adjacent plants flowering, or a few side shoots of one which has been cut for the table, next to the one you want to save. This is to ensure seed formation and to conserve as many characteristics (i.e. diversity) as possible.

If we are talking about the long term maintenance of a variety, then half-a-dozen broccoli plants should be allowed to go to seed together. To have stronger seeds, it is better not to harvest the heads for the table.

The buds will turn into a tall thick mass of yellow flowers. Broccoli will cross with cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi and Brussels sprouts. Two kilometres separation between them is required for absolute purity. As soon as a stalk grows up it will need support. Pods will form and gradually turn yellow then brown, but not all simultaneously.

When most pods are dried and the seeds rattle within, cut off the whole bush and hang in a dry place for two weeks, with a large sheet of paper or canvas underneath. Thresh out the seed and then dry it for a further fortnight, or until completely dry. Use a screen or sieve to separate chaff and seed.

Storage: The seeds will last up to five years. They are smaller than cabbage seeds, with 300 seeds to a gram.

Usage: Broccoli has been readily adopted by the Chinese as it is excellent when cooked to be a bit chewy (al dente, as Italians say). It can be doused with dressing when still hot and eaten later as a cold entree. The flowers are edible in salads and as garnishes.

#Regular consumption tends to lower blood pressure and is helpful in reducing obesity. Also broccoli is said to have anti-carcinogenic properties.

Looking around: Italians would have some good seed stock including the San Martinari broccoli (from San Marino), Nataleschi (for Christmas), and some named after the month in the northern winter when they are harvested: Gennajuoli, Febbrajuoli, Marzaoli, etc.

There are several types of asparagus broccoli (a kind of sprouting broccoli) available in Asian shops. The Nine-Star Perennial bears pure white shoots like tiny Cauliflowers in early summer for up to five years if kept well mulched during winter in cold places.

In England at the end of the last century there were more than forty varieties of coloured heading broccoli on the market including Siberian, Danish Purple, Cockscomb broccolis. If you want quick production, Spartan Early and De Cico reach maturity within a month of transplanting while Calabrese takes three weeks longer for the first shoots to appear.

Brassicaceae

Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera – brassica is Latin for cabbage, oleracea for "vegetable-like" and gemmifera means "bearing buds".

Origins: Developed from kale, the ancestor of the cabbage in western Europe.

Description: This crop is relatively new, having been developed over only the last 200 years in Belgium. The general appearance of the plant is not unlike the ancient borecole.

Cultivation: Best grown in a cool temperate climate where frost makes the little heads tight. In the tropics it would require high altitudes to produce seeds. Grows best in compacted heavy soils but can't tolerate wet feet. Without overfertilizing, add a little poultry manure when the little heads are forming to encourage seed production.

Saving the seed: Brussels sprouts will cross with any of the B. oleracea flowering nearby. They are biennial and insect-pollinated. As they are self-incompatible you will need to leave more than one plant for seed. They flower in their second year. For the kitchen, take only the bottom sprouts at the beginning of the season and the top ones at the end. This leaves the middle ones standing, the best for seed.

The top leaves of the plant are generally cut off to force the side sprouts to develop branches of flowers. The pods containing the small spherical seeds will form, and the seed stalk should be cut when the older pods turn yellow, but before they are dry. Leave to dry out on a canvas, then winnow and dry the seeds further before storage.

Storage: There are 270 seeds to the gram and they will last for four or five years.

Usage: Brussels sprouts are a good winter source of vitamin C. The smaller the sprout, the more tender. Steamed and served with butter, pepper and salt, and lemon juice is an old recipe (Acton, in Ray, 1974), or as Michael Boddy serves it, with cold pressed walnut oil.

Looking around: It is difficult to find tasty old local varieties because a lot of them have been diluted through unplanned crosses. Rather than grow those large almost cabbage-like Brussels sprouts, lacking fine flavour, aim at those with hard nut-like small sprouts with a crisp texture.

Look for Darlington, Dwarf and Tall King of the Market, Dwarf Gem, Laxton, Rear Guard (late variety) and Yates Champion. Rubine Red, which has red foliage and sprouts, is available in Canada at the moment but from only one seed company (Whealy, The Garden Seed Inventory, 1987).

Long Island is an American-bred variety suitable for the south of New Zealand and the cooler parts of Victoria and Tasmania, where it is planted in January. Fillbasket does not take warm weather and is suitable only for cold districts, where it is planted in early March.

Brassicaceae

Brassica oleracea var. capitata – brassica is Latin for cabbage, oleracea for "vegetable-like", capitata is Latin for "having a head".

Origins: The coastal chalk rocks of south eastern Europe and the Channel Islands are the original home of the cabbage. It was cultivated there 2500 years ago by the Celts who domesticated it from wild Kale. The Romans later selected and cultivated several sorts of head cabbage.

Cabbage is an anglicized version of the Old French word "caboche" meaning head. The fact that cabbage has similar names in different languages shows its long and wide use: "Kopi" in Hindi, "Kale" in Scottish, "Kaal" in Norwegian, "Kohl" in Swedish and "Col" in Spanish.

Jacques Cartier introduced cabbage to the Americas via Canada around the 1600's. In Australia, cabbage was popular with the early settlers because it could be eaten both fresh and pickled.

Description: Heading cabbages include the Savoy with crinkly green leaves, the Sugarloaf for spring eating and the large flat white Drum Head, which is grown for winter cutting. The open-leafed cabbages are under Kale and Collard, and the Asian cabbages under Chinese cabbage, Mizuna and Mustard Greens in this handbook.

Cultivation: If the heads are harvested by cutting off the stalk rather than uprooting the whole plants, this will enable the roots to produce a succession of small heads sprouting at the point where the first crop has been cut off.

Saving the seed: Biennial and cross-pollinated by insects, cabbages will cross with all the other B. oleracea (cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, kale and kohlrabi), but not with the Chinese cabbages. The flowering heads of any of these other plants within a few hundred metres will have to be cut off before their flowers open. If both are grown for seed, use the caging technique described in Chapter Four.

Since cabbage is self-incompatible, more than one plant is needed for cross-fertilization purposes. One plant on its own would set a small amount of seeds, if any. It is therefore best to let half-a-dozen plants go to seed. This may seem excessive but will ensure that most of the variety's character is conserved.

Mark the best plants and leave in the field to flower in the second growing season. In very cold areas, cabbage should be covered with straw over winter. Commercially, in areas where it is not cool enough for cabbages to go to seed, gibberellic acid (a hormone widely used in the flower trade) is sprayed on the heads. In Indonesia, the seed of cabbage is grown from local seed stock at high altitudes where temperatures are cooler.

Sometimes a deeply-cut cross may need to be made on the head to allow the seed stalk to emerge. All the side shoots which may appear at the base of the stalks should be cut off to encourage the main stalk.

Cabbage seeds of poorer quality can be produced from plants whose heads have been harvested – this is called "stump seeding". Leave two to three leaves on top of the stump to prevent sun scorching. In the second year, the stalk will produce pods. It is easiest if the seed pods are harvested all at once on the branches. Hang for further drying, for a week or so, over a canvas or similar. On a dry day, thresh, winnow and store.

Storage: The seeds are round, reddish-brown to blackish-brown and they will last four years in temperate regions, six to nine months in the tropics. There are 250 seeds to the gram.

Usage: Sauerkraut is a healthy, fermented food, rich in lactic acid and made from white cabbage, such as Dutch or Drumhead. Here is one method: in a fermentation container with an air lock like a beer or wine barrel, alternate layers of cabbage and rock salt (eight to ten percent) until full. Amongst the layers distribute some juniper berries and halved cooking apples, add a few cups of good whey from milk that is going off, and cover with water. Press down and place a weighted dish on top. Put the barrel in the sun and rotate daily for three days, and then in the kitchen for three days. The result will last for months at cellar temperatures (12°C).

Coleslaw is best made in our opinion with open-hearted cabbages such as collard and kale. It means "salad of cabbage" in Dutch. Red cabbage is traditionally pickled. Savoy and other green cabbages are best lightly steamed and eaten plain.

#The juice of the leaves is used to expel worms in children. Opera singers used to drink unsalted cabbage broth mixed with a beaten raw egg before performing. Cabbage is still used nowadays in Europe to dissipate the effects of alcohol. The ancient Greeks believed cabbage prevented drunkenness, while modern researchers have said that it helps to ward off cancer.

For people with arthritic pains, here is a recipe that is often used in Italy: wash a leaf of cabbage and roll with a rolling pin until it reduces to a mash. Then make a ball out of it, add a teaspoon of borax and a little water and apply with a bandage to the painful part.

Looking around: There is a tremendous range of cabbages, with many quite good hybrids from which reliable seeds cannot be saved. The types chosen are dictated by the time of the year for planting, and usage.

The conical spring cabbages are good for early spring and late summer transplanting, as they can take lots more cold weather than the drumhead types. Early spring types include Enfield Market and Yates First Early Improved, Early Marvel and Yates Earlyball. St John’s Day and Henderson Succession, which has bluish leaves, were bred in Australia by the Henderson family seed company. Yates also had their own lines such as Yates Vanguard, Christmas and All Head. The many other strains were usually of English origin.

ASTERACEAE

Calendula officinalis – from the Latin calende meaning "first day of the month", referring to the almost continuous habit of flowering, and officinalis meaning "apothecary shop".

Origins: A native annual of the Canary Islands, South Central Europe and North Africa.

Description: Bright yellow and orange daisy like flowers on a low bushy plant.

Cultivation: Calendulas can be planted in autumn as they are tolerant to cold, even to snow. In colder climates they are planted in spring. They prefer a sunny position but can take some shading.

Saving the seed: Because calendulas are pollinated by insects, only one variety should be grown at once if you want to maintain the colours or characteristics of that particular strain.

Double calendulas will not necessarily come true next season, because they may revert to the old single type. Flower heads can be cut when the stem is still green but the petals dry. A little crushing between the hands will reveal the seeds that are unusual in shape, ranging from crescent to nearly straight. Selection from the best plants is a key factor in producing any flower seeds but it need not be as rigorous for calendulas as for modern showy lupins and petunias.

Storage: The seeds will last only one year if kept in the open and two seasons if kept dry and dark. There are 100 seeds to the gram.

Usage: The petals are the part that is used for food and medicine. They are a substitute for true saffron (Crocus spp.), and a safe yellow food colouring in, for instance, egg dishes. The petals are pulled out, leaving only the yellow centre of the flower.

Fresh, scatter them onto salads and soups. To dry for later use, place the petals in a sieve and dip them, for a moment, into boiling, very salty water and then spread them out on white paper in a shady spot. The dry petals should be stored in an air tight jar as they discolour and lose their scent in the open. As a second best, the chaff left over from seed cleaning can be dried and stored, for later medicinal infusions.

#An infusion of fresh or dried calendula petals, or chaff, is a powerful antiseptic for bathing wounds and scratches. Soak dried calendula petals in oil for a week and apply to cracked lips and sunburn. The fresh flowers rubbed on a bee sting, bull ant or green ant bite relieve the sharp pain.

Looking around: There are many forms of calendula, from the most simple single to the sophisticated modern doubles. Colours range from light yellow to deep orange, the latter being most suitable for herbal remedies. Barry Waters from Tamborine Mountain Garden Club in South East Queensland is very fond of his home bred calendula variety that he has been growing for 20 years. The spreading bush tends to give masses of flowers, smaller, but more prolific, than the commercial varieties.

SOLANACEAE

Physalis peruviana – from the Greek physalis for "bladder", referring to the shape of the fruit.

Origins: The Andes in South America.

Description: A straggling bush up to one metre tall that bears yellow fruits inside a crisp envelope, which is the calyx. It is perennial and can tolerate some frost. In India it is called Jam Fruit. It is certainly a children's favourite. There are several relatives such as tomatillo, ground cherry and husk tomato, all in the genus Physalis. Cape gooseberry is also called Chinese lantern. It obtained its common name because it was introduced to Australia from the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.

Cultivation: Cape Gooseberry grows in full sun as well as partial shade and does well even in poor soils. It likes warmth and naturalizes easily in the right climates.

Saving the seed: Flowers are perfect and self-pollinating. Cut open fruit that you have collected from as many bushes as possible and scoop out the abundant seeds. Add a little water and allow to ferment for a few days. Evidence of this is a white foam on top. Rinse, then drain the seeds in a fine strainer. Dry for a few days. The seeds are small, hard, yellow and lens shaped.

Storage: The seeds will last three years under dry conditions. There are 400 seeds to the gram.

Usage: Cape gooseberry is an excellent source of vitamin C and vitamin A precursor, and a good source of vitamin B-complex. The protein content is very high for a fruit, being just a little less than dates. Cape gooseberries can be eaten sundried. They also make a most unusual flavouring for icecream.

#In India the leaves are eaten medicinally as a bitter spinach, the calyx and stalks are used in an infusion for light intermittent fevers and the plant is even used as a quinine substitute.

Looking around: Italians have bred a particularly large variety called Giallo Grosso whose fruit can attain five cm. Another large one, Goldenberry, resists light frost.

SOLANACEAE

Capsicum annuum – from the Greek kapto, "to bite," an allusion to the pungent properties of the fruit; annuum is Latin for "annual". Capsicum.

C. frutescens, C. pubescens, C. baccatum & C. annuum – fructa means "fruity", pubescens "hairy" and baccatum "with berries" in Latin. Chilli.

Origins: There is some controversy about the origin of chillies and capsicums. There is even discrepancy about the botanical classification. Although some experts believe that various species came from Mexico, it is generally accepted that the ancestors of chillies originated in an area of Bolivia and spread through Central and South America in the early days.

Columbus was looking for a route to the spice-growing East Indies when he was presented with chillies on arrival in the West Indies. Thinking that he had completed his mission, he named the inhabitants "Indians" and the chillies, "peppers". Both names persist today.

Chillies are recorded as reaching the Philippines with the Portuguese in the 1500's and having spread to Hunan and Szechuan - China's centre of spicy food - soon afterwards. There, it is called "foreign pepper".

Description: C. annuum varieties have white flowers and only one fruit coming out from each growing point. These are good for temperate regions.

C. frutescens is the most common type of chilli and includes the potent Birdseye types, one form of which puts the bite into Tabasco sauce. Two or three fruits grow at each node. Others are the Squash chilli (formerly C. chinense), also called Scotch Bonnet or Rocotillo in Jamaica, which has been growing well in our gardens for years. It will cross with C. annuum.

C. pubescens has black wrinkled seeds, purple flowers and its leaves are covered with a light fuzz, as its name indicates.

C. baccatum has large flowers and leaves, and its fruit is extremely hot.

Cultivation: 15°C is the minimum temperature for successful germination of the seeds. Seeds can be started indoors in winter and the seedlings planted out in spring when danger of frost is over. It is wise to stake them if strong winds are common.

Both chillies and capsicums behave as perennials in the sub tropics and tropics, and as annuals in temperate zones. Hot chillies are tolerant of cool weather but are frost sensitive. In temperate areas they are grown in pots and moved indoors in winter. A member of Seed Savers grows 150 varieties, belonging to four species of chillies, in Merbein, Victoria. It is the diversity of flavours, growth habits, fruit shapes and colours that attract chilli collectors.

Saving the seed: The flowers of capsicums and chillies are perfect. They are technically self-pollinating, but crossing by insects does occur. Chilli pollen is dominant over capsicum pollen, leading to hot surprises in the next generation. Caging individual bushes with a shade cloth, or even better with spun polyester, is a solution if you want to grow several types and save their seeds.

A tunnel where insects will be excluded is also good for growing out a collection of chillies and capsicums all at once. However isolation of 200 metres from other varieties ensures total purity. Fifty metres is the smallest distance for avoiding most crossing. In the small garden, a branch can be bagged, or individual plants can be isolated a garden length with a tall crop in between, to break the bees’ flight path.

When the best, disease-free bushes carry particularly well-formed fruit, select the best of them. They are ready soon after the final colour for that variety has been reached. Cut fruit open, scrape out the seeds, and dry them on paper in the shade for a few days.

Seeds do not have to be washed. Large amounts of chilli seeds are most easily extracted by putting the ripe chillies with water in a blender on slow speed. Flesh and pulp will rise to the top and can be poured off. Seeds will settle to the bottom.

Do this in a well-ventilated room because of the strong fumes and always wear rubber gloves when working with hot chillies. Make sure that all utensils are washed afterwards with extreme care.

Storage: The seeds are cream, yellow or black, flattened and nearly round. When kept in cold, dark and dry storage conditions they will remain viable for five years. There are 150 seeds to the gram.

Usage: Algerian salad: barbecue some capsicums, chillies and tomatoes until the skin is charred; peel, slice and dress with vinegar, oil and garlic. Chillies have a nutritional content high in protein (three percent) and very high in vitamins C and K.

Hundreds of millions of poor live on rice and/or cassava with chilli. It is probably the most popular vegetable (NB: not a spice) in the tropical world. Recent Western research has shown that its active ingredient, known as capsaicin, helps to metabolise food and prevent obesity, so chillies are recommended to weight watchers!

#Powdered cayenne (from the town of the same name in French Guyana) is made into liniment to increase the blood flow in areas affected by rheumatism. Be careful of overdoing it and causing blisters!

Looking around: When they ripen, chillies and capsicums display many beautiful colours: red, black, orange, yellow, brown and even purple. Italians, Asians and East Europeans, especially Hungarians and Roumanians, have interesting mild to hot varieties.

Manzano, which are in the purple flowering group (C. pubescens), grow well in Australia. They were highly regarded by the Incas and can grow for ten years, being the most cold-tolerant of all the cultivated chillies. They do not cross (hybridize) with the other species.

The fruit of C. baccatum contain unique aromas and flavours that may be overpowering to the uninitiated. This species includes the Central American Escabeche which is used in Mexican cooking and the Andean Aji which has been in cultivation for 4000 years.